
Class _LX_Lo4jS 



Book: X4 r\S 



The Indiana State Board of Education 

EDUCATIONAL BULLETIN 

Educational Bulletin No. 19 Indiana Survey Series No. 4 



REPORT OF THE 

EVANSVILLE, INDIANA, SURVEY FOR 

VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



Charles H. Winslow, 
State Director of Vocational Research 



Application for entry as second-class matter at the post office 
at Indianapolis pending 



INDIANAPOLIS 

JANUARY 1. 1917 



BULLETINS OF INDIANA STATE BOARD OF 

EDUCATION. 

Vocational Survey Series 



[Note: With the exceptions Indicated the following studies made by special agents 
of the State Board of Education and Indiana University working in co-operation with 
the State Board will be sent free of charge upon application to the Vocational Divi- 
sion, Department of Public Instruction, Indianapolis. Those marked (*) are out of 
print.] 

No. 1. A Study of the People of Indiana and Their Occupations for Purposes 
of Vocational Education by R. J. Leonard, Professor of Vocational 
Education, Indiana University. Published by Indiana University, 
Bloomington, February 15, 1915. 143 pp. May be obtained from 
Indiana University. Price, 50c. 

No. 2. Some Facts Concerning the People, Industries and Schools of Ham- 
mond and a Suggested Program for Elementary Industrial, Pre- 
vocational and Vocational Education by R. J. Leonard, Professor 
of Vocational Education, Indiana University. Published by Board 
of Education of Hammond, April 15, 1915. 165 pp. 

No. 3. Report of the Richmond Vocational Survey, R. J. Leonard, Di- 
rector. 

No. 4. Report of Evansville Survey for Vocational Education. Decem- 
ber, 1916. 

No. 5. Report on Jefferson County Vocational Survey. January, 1917. 

No. 6. Report on the Indianapolis Survey for Vocational Education. Feb- 
ruary, 1917. 

Mo. 7. Report ok Madison, Indiana, Vocational Survey. February, 1917. 



The Indiana State Board of Education 

EDUCATIONAL BULLETIN 

Educational Bulletin No. 19 Survey Series No. 4 



REPORT OF THE 
EVANSVILLE SURVEY FOR 
VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 



CHARLES H. WINSLOW 

STATE DIRECTOR OF VOCATIONAL RESEARCH 



Application for entry as second-class matter at the post office 
at Indianapolis pending 



INDIANAPOLIS 
January 1, 1917 






Approved by 
State Board of Education 



D. of D. 

MAR 6 1917 



FORT WAYNE PRINTING COMPANY 

CONTRACTORS FOR STATE PRINTING AND BINDING 

1917 



DEPARTMENT OF PUBLIC INSTRUCTION 

Vocational Division 



Charles A. Greathouse 
Superintendent of Public Instruction 



W. F. Book 
In Charge of Vocational Work 



Z. M. Smith 
Special Agent for Agricultural Education 



Adelaide Steele Baylor 
Special Agent to Supervise Domestic Science Education 



Charles H. Winslow 
State Director of Vocational Research 



(iii) 



Foreword 

In February, 1913, the Indiana Vocational Education Law — 
recommended by the teachers and superintendents of the state 
and by the Special Commission on Industrial Education appointed 
two years previously to investigate Indiana's need for vocational 
training — Avas passed by the legislature. A Deputy State Superin- 
tendent in Charge of Vocational Work, and a Special Agent to 
Supervise Agricultural Education were appointed by the State 
Board of Education the following May. As the sections of the 
law providing for state-aided vocational schools did not go into 
effect until September of the following year, the first year was 
devoted to a study of the problems involved in the organization 
and conduct of the special vocational schools to be established, 
and to developing the instruction in industrial arts, agriculture 
and domestic science, which the law prescribed should be taught 
in all the schools of the state as a part of their regular course of 
instruction. 

During the first year vocational schools in all parts of the 
country were visited and the experiments made in vocational edu- 
cation in different cities and states carefully studied. One con- 
viction which this study of the problem left in our minds was 
that most of the cities and states which had organized vocational 
instruction were, in reality, not stressing the occupations in which 
the majority of their people were engaged and that all the voca- 
tional schools visited seemed more or less handicapped by the fact 
that no careful analyses of the major industries had been made 
to provide the data needed to make an effective course of study. 
We also became keenly aware of the fact that the Indiana situation 
presented some problems that were distinctly unique and new. In 
other words, we began to see that a careful and systematic study 
of Indiana's specific needs for vocational training would have to 
be made and the more important industries of the state analyzed 
before the problem of providing vocational training for the people 
of the state could be effectively and economically solved. As a 
result steps were immediately taken and plans formulated for 
making such vocational surveys. 

In February, 1914, W. L. Bryan, President of Indiana Uni- 
versity, announced to Superintendent Chas. A. Greathouse and the 



vi Foreword 

State Director of Vocational Education that Indiana University 
desired to co-operate with the state in the development of the 
vocational work by providing, free of charge to the state, for at 
least one year, the services of an expert in industrial education, 
whom he desired should work on such problems or tasks as the 
State Board of Education might direct. In September, 1914, R. J. 
Leonard came to Indiana University as Professor of Vocational 
Education and, in conformity with President Bryan's plan, was 
loaned to the state for the year. During this year Professor 
Leonard, working in co-operation with the department, made a 
study of the people of Indiana and their occupations, gathering 
and organizing all the facts which would indicate where the empha- 
sis in developing vocational education in the state should be laid. 
This study was published by Indiana University in February, 1915, 
and constitutes the first Indiana study for purposes of vocational 
education made. In December, 1914, the State Director of Voca- 
tional Education made arrangements with the Superintendent and 
Board of Education at Hammond, to have Professor Leonard make 
a detailed study of the industries and schools of Hammond, with 
a view of ascertaining the facts pertaining to the industries and 
the schools, which would enable us to make wise recommendations 
for developing vocational instruction in Hammond. This study 
was published by the Hammond Board of Education in April, 
1915, and constitutes the second study for purposes of vocational 
education made in the state. 

Other minor studies of the needs of teachers of the practical 
arts subject in the regular schools and the need for vocational 
instruction in particular communities were made by the State 
Department during this year. Indiana University also provided the 
full-time service of one woman (paying all her salary and travel- 
ing expenses) to help supervise the domestic science work given 
in the regular schools. The Indiana State Normal School did the 
same. Purdue University provided the services of two women to 
help supervise the work in domestic science and three men to help 
supervise the work in agriculture. 

In April, 1915, Professor R. J. Leonard was invited to confer 
with Superintendent J. T. Giles qnd the Board of Education of 
Richmond, Indiana, relative to making a vocational survey of Rich- 
mond. On May 6, 1915, Superintendent Giles was authorized by 
the Richmond Board of Education to extend an invitation to Pro- 



Foreword vii 

fessor Leonard to direct a vocational survey for that city, and pre- 
liminary arrangements for making the survey were made during 
May and June. In June, 1915, Mr. P. A. Reid, a member of the 
State Board of Education and also a member of the Richmond 
School Board, asked the State Board of Education to co-operate in 
making the Richmond Survey, and urged that some financial aid be 
given for this work, explaining that unless such assistance could be 
given no adequate Survey could be made. 

At the September meeting of the State Board of Education 
a tentative plan for making a number of typical state surveys 
for purposes of vocational education was presented to the State 
Board by W. F. Book, State Director of Vocational Education. 
By November 30th, a plan for conducting a joint Survey at Rich- 
mond was agreed upon, $1,000 voted for the work and the State 
Director of Vocational Education instructed to draw up an agree- 
ment between the State Board of Education, Indiana University 
and the Board of Education of Richmond for making a joint voca- 
tional survey at Richmond. On December 9th, this agreement was 
ratified by the State Board of Education and the money appropri- 
ated for the Richmond Survey. 

This Survey was in charge of Professor R. J. Leonard and a gen- 
eral Survey Committee specially provided for in the agreement 
made with Indiana University and the Board of Education of Rich- 
mond. To Professor Leonard, who directed the work of the Rich- 
mond Survey, to Indiana University, whose keen interest in the 
development of the vocational work throughout the state prompted 
it to contribute the services of the Director, and to the members of 
the General Survey Committee, who gave so freely of their time and 
energy during the conduct of the Richmond Survey, the State 
Board of Education is deeply indebted for material assistance, 
expert service and a spirit of co-operation whose value to the state 
it would be hard to estimate. 

Before the arrangements for the Richmond Survey had been 
completed arrangements for making other vocational surveys had 
been made. On November 30, 1915, a tentative plan for making 
a survey of the city of Madison and Jefferson County, to be 
conducted jointly by the State Board of Education, the Madison 
City and Jefferson County Boards of Education and Hanover 
College were presented to the State Board by W. F. Book, State 
Director of Vocational Education The general plan for conduct- 



viii Foreword 

ing this Survey was approved and the Survey authorized. Money 
was also voted and Mr. Book was instructed to draw up an agree- 
ment for conducting this Survey. 

On November 23rd, the Evansville Board of Education voted 
to invite the State Board of Education "to make a Survey of the 
city of Evansville, looking towards the establishment of a day 
vocational school". Preliminary arrangements for making this 
Survey and for securing a suitable man to direct and carry out 
the state program for vocational research contemplated, were made 
during December. On January 11th, 1916, the State Board of 
Education approved a tentative plan for conducting a Survey 
of Evansville, and appropriated $2,800.00 for the work. The 
Board also instructed the State Director of Vocational Education 
to sign an agreement with the local Board of Education for making 
the Evansville Survey as soon as a suitable director had been 
secured. On January 27th, the State Board of Education, upon 
the recommendation of State Superintendent Chas. A. Greathouse, 
and W. F. Book, State Director of Vocational Education, elected 
Mr. Chas. H. Winslow as State Director of Vocational Research, 
and directed Mr. Winslow and Mr. Book to work out and report 
a plan for conducting the various state surveys contemplated. This 
plan not only defined the authority and duties of the State Board 
of Education, the State Director of Vocational Education and 
State Director of Vocational Research, but also made provisions 
for the necessary administrative machinery, state and local, required 
to carry on all state vocational surveys. Among other things this 
plan provided for a permanent State survey committee, to have 
control of the several surveys to be made. This committee was 
given authority to determine the method and scope of each sur- 
vey and was charged with the duty of making complete and 
detailed recommendations to the State and local Boards of Educa- 
tion for organizing and developing vocational work in each com- 
munity where a survey was to be made. 

The field work on the Evansville, Madison City and Jefferson 
County Surveys was done during the spring and early summer of 
1916. During May and June the State Director of Vocational 
Education, upon the invitation of Superintendent J. G. Collicott, 
made arrangements with the Indianapolis Board of School Com- 
missioners for making a vocational survey of Indianapolis. The 
agreement for conducting the Indianapolis Survey was signed on 



Foreword ix 

June 20th, 1916, and the field work on the Indianapolis Survey 
begun on July 5th. In preparing the report of the surveys the 
Director was assisted by Dr. John Cummings, research expert of 
the National Commission for Vocational Education, statistician 
of the Richmond, Virginia, Survey, and special agent of the Fed- 
eral Census Bureau, who was granted leave of absence to under- 
take this work. Reports on all these Surveys will be published 
during the next three months by the State Board of Education. 

Co-operation of National Society for the Promotion of Industrial 
Education. As soon as a state program for vocational research has 
been definitely planned and decided upon and a State Director for 
Vocational Research secured, the National Society for the Promotion 
of Industrial Education was invited to hold its Tenth Annual Meet- 
ing in Indianapolis, and urged to take a prominent part in making 
the Indiana Surveys. The opportunity of considering at its next an- 
nual convention the problem of vocational training from a state an- 
gle and the opportunity of co-operating in a state survey caused the 
National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education to 
decline the invitations extended to it by a number of other promi- 
nent cities throughout the country, and to decide to hold its Tenth 
Annual Convention in Indianapolis. 

The Secretary of the National Society and two members of 
its Survey Committee, C. R. Richards and C. A. Prosser, were 
appointed on the Indiana State Survey Committee, Dr. Prosser 
being made Chairman of the Committee. In addition to the 
personal service which these gentlemen have given, the National 
Society has contributed much expert advice and assistance by 
calling upon its entire membership for help. To the National 
Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education, and to C. A. 
Prosser, Chairman of the State Survey Committee and C. R. 
Richards and Alvin E. Dodd, who have given so freely of their 
time and energy to the Indiana Surveys, the State Board of 
Education and State of Indiana are deeply indebted for expert 
service in planning and helping direct the work of the Evansville, 
Madison and Indianapolis Surveys. We are also specially indebted 
to G. I. Christie, of Purdue University, and W. A. Mills, President 
of Hanover College, for their co-operation and personal service 
in conducting the Jefferson County Survey. Without their 
aid and assistance this Survey could not have been made. Special 
acknowledgements are also due to all other members of our State 



x Foreword 

Survey Committee, particularly to Mr. Chas. H. Winslow, State 
Director of Vocational Research, under whose wise leadership and 
personal direction the Madison, Evansville and Indianapolis Sur- 
veys were made. 

Purpose of the Indiana Surveys. The aim of all these 
Indiana Surveys, as conceived by the Vocational Department 
and State Board of Education, was to ascertain from a study 
of the industries of a particular community the facts that would 
be needed to outline an efficient and economic program of vocational 
training for that community, and to ascertain from a study of 
the work being done in the public, private and parochial schools 
of the community how far the vocational needs of that community 
were already being met by existing agencies. The ultimate pur- 
pose was to suggest a definite program for organizing and develop- 
ing vocational education in the particular city or district covered 
by the Survey, but it is hoped that by selecting a number of 
typical communities throughout the state, some definite help might 
also be obtained for solving the problem of providing an efficient 
scheme of vocational training for the state as a whole. 

Chas. A. Greathouse, 
President Indiana State Board of Education. 

William F. Book, 
State Director of Vocational Education. 



Table of Contents. 



The Evansville Vocational Survey. 

Part I. — Introductory Statement. 

page 

1. Purpose, methods, scope and co-operating agencies of the Survey. 

Purpose 1 

Method 2 

Contributory and directive agencies 4 

Conferential and co-operative agencies 5 

The local Survey committee 6 

Industrial committees 7 

The local staff 7 

Scope of the Industrial Survey 8 

Scope of the School Survey 9 

Scope of the Library Survey 10 

Scope of the Survey for colored people 10 

2. The case stated. 

Cost of efficiency in Evansville 11 

Abandonment of children 14 to 16 years of age 12 

Necessity for raising the age limit for compulsory education . . 13 

Violation of the law 14 

Establishment of a Junior High School 17 

Appointment of an assistant to the superintendent 18 

Museum of industry and commerce 18 

Vocational expert for shop and school co-ordination work.. 19 

Informal vocational instruction 19 

Part II. — Summary of Findings as to Industries. 

Selection of industries for Survey 21 

Schedule inquiries 29 

Vocational courses requested 29 

Trade and educational agreements 31 

New teachers and equipment required 34 

Furniture and woodworking industries 36 

Building trades 39 

Cigar factories 41 

Dressmaking 43 

Flour mills 44 

Garment making 45 

Gas engine manufacturing 46 



xii Table of Contents 

PAGE 

Hospitals and nurses 47 

Laundries , 49 

Machine shops 50 

Metal products shops 52 

Plow manufacturing 53 

Potteries 54 

Printing 56 

Railroad shop 57 

Retail stores 58 

Stove manufacturing 60 

Vehicle manufacturing 60 

Gardening and general agriculture 62 

TABLES. 
I. Gainfully employed persons in specified industrial and occupa- 
tional classes — 1910. (Federal census data) 21-25 

II. Statistics of Evansville manufacturing establishments: 1914- 

1909. (Federal census data) 26 

III. Number of establishments and of employees covered by the 
Evansville Survey 28 

IV. Building trades — number of establishments, journeymen and 
apprentices 41 

V. Wages in the tobacco industry 42 

VI. Classification of workers in six general machine shops 51 

VII. Classification of workers in five metal products shops 52 

Part III. — Summary of Findings as to Schools and Libraries. 

Public school enrollment and population 6-20 years of age — 

1910-1916 63 

Enrollment by grades 64 

Average daily attendance 67 

Withdrawals from Grades 4 to 12 67 

Permit-workers 68 

Manual training work in the public schools 70 

Household arts work in the public schools 73 

Day and evening vocational work in the public schools 73 

Prevocational instruction 74 

Private school vocational instruction 75 

Nurses training schools 75 

Receipts and expenditures for schools and libraries 75 

Per capita expenditures for schools and libraries 88 

Per capita expenditures for teachers' salaries 89 

Library volumes, borrowers and circulation 90 

Volumes on useful arts 94 

Library borrowers among persons scheduled by the Survey. . 94 

School deposit stations and class room libraries 94 

Industrial stations 94 

The Willard Library 94 



Table of Contents xiii 

TABLES. 

PAGE 

I. Population 6-20 years of age and public school enrollment — 

1910-1916 63 

II. Enrollment by grades in public schools — 1915-1916 65 

III. Decrease by grades — enrollment in each grade compared with 
enrollment in the next highest grade in the year following, 
covering six promotions — 1910-1916 66 

IV. Increase in enrollment by grades — 1910-1916 67 

V. Children who withdrew from school September 1, 1915, to 

April 7, 1916, classified as normal age, accelerated or retarded 68 
VI. Men's public school evening vocational courses — statistics 

by courses— 1915-1916 76 

VII. Women's public school evening vocational courses — statistics 

by courses — 1915-1916 77 

VIII. Receipts of the Evansville Corporation and School City for 

the calendar year — 1914 88 

IX. Expenditure of Evansville for the calendar year — 1914 89 

X. Expenditures of Evansville for school purposes, not including 

outlays for new buildings and equipment — 1913-1914 90 

XI. Amount and per capita expenditure for schools, libraries and 
all purposes, by cities having a population of 50,000 to 100,000 

—1914 91,92 

XII. Expenditure for teachers' salaries per capita of population 
6-20 years of age, and per pupil enrolled in the public day 
schools for selected cities — 1913-1914 93 

CHARTS. 

I. Manual training and household arts work in the public schools 

—general statistics — 1915-1916 78-80 

II. Day and evening vocational 'work in the public schools — 

general statistics — 1915-1916 81, 82 

III. Vocational work of the Y. M. C. A., private business and dress- 
making schools — general statistics — 1915-1916 83-85 

IV. Training of nurses in hospital training courses — general 
statistics — 1915-1916 86, 87 

Part IV. — Recommendations of the Survey Committee. 

The case for vocational education in Evansville 95 

Relation of vocational education to regular education in 

Evansville and Indiana 99 

The imminence of a rise in the age of compulsory school 

attendance 109 

Compulsory continuation schools and classes 114 

The enforcement of the compulsory attendance law in Evans- 
ville 117 

The^ Junior High School and prevocational training 118 

The*Senior High School 120 

Industrial or trade schoof group 123 



xiv Table of Contents 

PAGE 

Vocational training in evening classes 125 

Agriculture in the Evansville Public Schools 130 

Vocational education for the colored people of Evansville . . . 132 

Trade and educational agreements 135 

The public library and vocational education 137 

Financing Vocational Education in Evansville 138 

Part V. — Findings as to Industries. 

I. Furniture and woodworking industries. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of the industries 141 

Product 141 

Standardization of product 142 

Characteristics of the industries 143 

Specialization of processes 144 

Can the industries be developed? 144 

Labor supply 147 

Qualifications for efficiency 148 

Shop training and apprenticeship 150 

Is promotion systematic, by merit for efficiency, or 

accidental? 151 

Does the discipline of the industries contribute to good 

citizenship? 152 

Can the school co-operate? 153 

2. Occupational analyses. 

A. The furniture industry. 

Occupational classification of workers 158 

Dry kiln men 158 

Double surfacer operators 159 

Jointer operators 161 

Semi-skilled machine operators 162 

Veneerers 165 

Sanders 166 

Sawyers 167 

Lathe operators 169 

Cabinet makers or assemblers 170 

Chair makers or assemblers 171 

Hand carvers 171 

Finishers 172 

Upholsterers 174 

Unskilled laborers 174 

B. Planing mills. 

Occupational classification of workers 175 

Machines to be found in a planing mill 176 

Machine hands 176 



Table of Contents xv 

PAGE 

Machine feeders 177 

Bench hands 177 

Unskilled laborers 177 

C. Lumber mills. 

Conditions of employment 178 

Pond men 178 

Deck men 179 

The head sawyer 179 

Carriage men (setters and doggers) 180 

Saw tailers 180 

Edgermen 181 

Edger tailers 181 

Slasher men 181 

Sawyers, resaw 181 

Sawyer helpers, resaw 182 

Trimmer operators 182 

Trimmer loaders 182 

Butting saw and roll men 182 

D. Special lines of woodworking. 

Tank and seat factories 183 

Trunk factories 183 

Casket factory 184 

Box factory 184 

II. Building trades. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of the building trades 187 

Product 188 

Standardization of product 188 

Characteristics of the trades 188 

Specialization of processes 188 

Development of the trades 189 

Labor supply 189 

Requirements of modern building construction 189 

Efficiency as a condition of advancement 190 

Wages and hours 190 

Can the schools co-operate? 192 

Courses guaranteed 192 

2. Occupational analyses. 

Bricklaying 193 

Carpentering 194 

Cement finishing 194 

Electrical work 195 

Painting 196 

Paperhanging 198 



xvi Table of Contents 

PAGE 

Plastering 198 

Plumbing and steamfitting 199 

Sheet metal work 200 

Stonecutting 201 

Structural steel and iron work 202 

Unskilled labor in the building trades 204 

• 
III. Cigar factories. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of the industry 205 

Product 205 

Characteristics of the industry 205 

Specialization of processes 205 

Labor supply 206 

Qualifications and training of workers 206 

Promotion for efficiency 207 

Wages 207 

Can the schools co-operate? 207 

2. Occupational analyses. 

Handling and steaming 208 

Assorting 208 

Stemming by hand 208 

Bunching 209 

Rolling 209 

Grading and shading 209- 

Packing 209 

Inspecting 210 

Banding 210 

Labeling 211 

Stamping 211 

IV. Dressmaking. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of the trade 213 

Product 213 

Standardization of product 213 

Organization and equipment of the trade 213 

Conditions of work 215 

Constancy of employment 215 

Specialization of processes 215 

Labor supply 216 

Qualifications for efficiency 217 

Shop training 219 

Opportunity for advancement 220 

Sewing schools 220 

Wages and hours 221 

Can the schools co-operate? 222 



Table of Contents xvii 



2. Occupational analyses. page 

Dressmakers 223 

Helpers 224 

Shoppers 224 

Waist drapers 225 

Waist-lining makers 226 

Waist fitters 226 

Sleeve making 227 

Skirt-lining makers 228 

Skirt making or draping 228 

Alteration 228 

Finishing 229 

V. Flour mills. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of the industry 231 

Product 231 

Standardization of product 231 

Characteristics of the industry 231 

Specialization of processes 232 

Labor supply 233 

Qualifications for efficiency 233 

Practical training in mills 233 

Promotion in the industry 234 

Hours and wages 235 

Can the schools co-operate? 235 

2. Occupational analyses. 

Sweepers 236 

Oilers 236 

Elevator men 236 

Elevator foremen 237 

Wheat loaders 237 

Loader foremen 237 

Smutters 238 

Grinders 238 

Bolters 239 

Second millers 240 

Head millers 240 

Testers (bakers, flour testers, chemists) 240 

Millwrights 241 

Power department employees 242 

VI. Garment making. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of the industry 243 

Product 243 



xviii Table of Contents 

PAGE 

Standardization of product 243 

Characterization of the industry 243 

Conditions of employment 244 

Specialization of processes 245 

Labor supply 246 

Qualifications for efficiency 247 

Shop training 247 

Wages and hours 247 

Can the schools co-operate? 248 

2. Occupational analyses. 

Laying off and cutting 248 

Preparing routing tickets 249 

Seaming and joining 249 

Serging 250 

Tacking * 251 

Buttonholing 251 

Button clamping 252 

Button sewing 252 

Eyelet making 253 

Pocket setting 253 

Back and bib seaming 253 

Bottom hemming 254 

Body work on overalls 254 

Sleeve making 255 

Sleeve and button piece facing 255 

Sleeve setting 255 

Collar and cuff making 256 

Setting on collars 256 

Making fronts and bosoms 256 

Putting on collar bands 257 

Box plaiting 257 

Hemming shirts 257 

Yoke setting 258 

Shoulder joining 258 

Pressing 258 

Work on trousers 258 

Labeling 260 

Examining 260 

Awning and tent processes 261 

Work of forewomen 261 

VII. Gas engine manufacturing. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of the industry 263 

Product 263 

Standardization of product 263 

Characteristics of the industry 263 



Table of Contents xix 

PAGE 

Specialization of processes 264 

Departmental organization 264 

What is required of workers? 266 

Shop training 267 

Can the schools co-operate? 267 

2. Occupational analyses. 

Foundry yard 268 

Core room 268 

Foundry room 269 

Cleaning room 270 

Machine shop , 271 

Lathes 271 

Grinders 272 

Drilling machines 273 

Boring mills 275 

Milling machines 276 

Planers 278 

The punch press 279 

Automatic machines 280 

Tools of the shop and pit 281 

Shaper 282 

Tempering furnaces and forges 283 

Inspection department 284 

Other departments 284 

VIII. Hospitals and nurses. 

1. General findings. 

Number of hospitals and nurses 287 

Standardization 287 

Specialization 287 

Classes for nurses 287 

Conditions of employment 288 

Demand 289 

Supply 289 

Age of entrance 290 

Qualifications 290 

Deficiencies 290 

Training 291 

Wages and hours 292 

Can the schools co-operate? 292 

2. Occupational analyses. 

Superintendent 295 

Graduate nurse, registered 295 

Graduate nurse, unregistered 296 

Undergraduate in training 296 

Visiting nurse 297 



xx Table of Contents 

PAGE 

Undergraduate in practice 297 

Practical nurse 297 

Nurse maid 298 

Junior nurse or nurse girl 298 

Home nurse 299 

IX. Laundries. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of the industry 301 

Conditions of employment 301 

Hours of work 302 

Wages 303 

Departmental organization 303 

Selection of workers 303 

Specialization 303 

Promotion 304 

Can the schools co-operate? 305 

2. Occupational analyses. 

Listers, markers, sorters, checkers and bundlers 305 

Washers 306 

Extractors 307 

Tumblers 307 

Starchers 308 

Flat-ironing shakers and folders 309 

Collar ironers 310 

Shirt ironers 311 

Hand ironers 314 

Foreman 315 

X. Machinist trade and special lines of metal working. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of machine shop and metal products work . 317 

Product 318 

Standardization of product 318 

Characteristics of metal working shops 318 

Specialization 320 

A typical machine shop 320 

A typical specialty shop 321 

Labor supply 322 

Qualifications for efficiency 322 

Shop training 322 

Promotion for efficiency 324 

Wages 324 

Can the schools co-operate? 324 

2. Occupational analyses. 

Machinist 325 



Table of Contents xxi 

PAGE 

XI. Plow manufacturing. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of the industry 329 

Product 329 

Standardization of product 330 

Characteristics of the industry 330 

Specialization of processes 330 

Labor supply 331 

Qualifications of workers 331 

Shop training 331 

Wages 331 

Can the schools co-operate? 333 

2. Occupational analyses. 

Pattern shop processes 333 

Foundry processes 333 

Forge shop processes 334 

Fitting and polishing processes 334 

Woodworking processes 335 

Paint shop processes 335 

Assembling department processes 335 

XII. Potteries. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of the industry 337 

Product 337 

Standardization of product 337 

Machinery and equipment 337 

Blunger 337 

Sifter 338 

Agitator 338 

Slip pump and filter press 338 

Pug mill 338 

Pebble mill or grinding cylinder 339 

Jigger 339 

Biscuit and glost kilns 340 

Specialization of processes 340 

Labor supply 340 

Qualifications of workers 342 

Apprenticeship 342 

Wages and hours 342 

Can the schools co-operate? 343 

2. Occupational analyses. 

Manufacturing processes 343 

Decalcomania, chromo, or litho transfer decorating. . . . 345 



xxii Table of Contents 

PAGE 

Airbrush decorating 346 

Lining 347 

Stamping 347 

XIII. Printing. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of the industry 349 

Product 349 

Standardization of product 349 

Characteristics of the industry 349 

Specialization of processes 349 

Labor supply 350 

Shop training 350 

Wages and hours 351 

Can the schools co-operate? 351 

2. Occupational analyses. . 

Hand composition 351 

Monotype machine composition 352 

Linotype machine composition 353 

Proofreading 353 

Making-up and imposition 354 

Stereotyping 355 

Presswork, cylinder pressmen 355 

Press feeding 357 

Photo-engraving 358 

Bookbinding 360 

XIV. Railroad shop. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of the industry 363 

Standardization of products 364 

Characteristics of the industry 364 

Specialization of processes 364 

Labor supply 364 

Qualifications of workers 364 

Shop training and apprenticeship 366 

Wages and hours 366 

Can the schools co-operate? 366 

2. Occupational analyses. 

Car repair work 367 

Riveting and bucking 368 

Pipefitting (car shop) 369 

Boiler making 369 

Tinsmi thing or sheet metal work 371 

Blacksmithing 372 

Machine woodworking (car shop) 373 

Unskilled labor 374 



Table of Contents xxiii 

PAGE 

XV. Retail stores. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of retail trade employments 375 

Scope of the Survey 375 

General occupational groups 377 

Retail store departments 377 

Selection of help 377 

Shop training 381 

Promotion 382 

Can the schools co-operate? 382 

2. Occupational analyses. 

General classification of occupations 383 

Executive Positions. 

Managers 384 

Floormen '. 384 

Advertising manager 385 

Buying and Selling Positions. 

Buyers 385 

Heads of stock 386 

Sales clerks 386 

General sales clerks 387 

Specialty sales clerks 387 

Table or aisle girls 387 

Check or bundle boys and girls 388 

Office Positions. 

File clerks 389 

Mail order clerks 389 

Transfer clerks 389 

Tube or carrier girls 390 

Bookkeepers 390 

Shippers 390 

Head shippers 390 

Helpers 390 

XVI. Stove manufacturing. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of the industry 391 

Product 391 

Characteristics of the industry 391 

Occupations 391 

Apprenticeships and shop training 391 

Can the schools co-operate? 392 

2. Occupational analyses 393 



XXIV 



Table of Contents 



PAGE 

XVII. Vehicle manufacturing. 

1. General findings. 

Importance of the industry 395 

Product 395 

Standardization of product 395 

Characteristics of the industry 395 

Specialization of processes 396 

Labor supply 399 

Shop training 399 

Can the schools co-operate? 400 

2. Occupational analyses. 

Spoke making 401 

Hub making 402 

Rim making 402 

Tiring 403 

Assembling the wheel 403 

Dipping wheels 404 

Rubber tiring 404 

Body department processes 405 

Work on poles, shafts and axle beds 406 

Smithshop work 406 

Painting 306 

Trimming and finishing 407 

Mounting 407 

XVIII. Gardening and general agriculture 409 

TABLES. 

I. Number of skilled, semi-skilled, unskilled and apprentice 
furniture workers, classified by occupations and rate of wages 
per hour 160 

II. Number of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled planing mill 

workers classified by occupations, and rate of wages per hour. 175 

III. Establishments and employees, journeymen and apprentices, 

in the building trades, classified by trades 187 

IV. Employees in gas engine factory classified by department, 
occupational group and age 265-266 

V. Rates and wages of nurses 292 

VI. Employees in 11 machine and metal products shops classified 

by general occupational groups 319 

VII. Employees in plow works classified by department, and as 

skilled or unskilled 330 

VIII. Employees in plow works classified by occupation 332 

IX. Employees in potteries classified by occupation and as skilled 

or unskilled 341 



Table of Contents 



xxv 



XI. 

XII. 
XIII. 
XIV. 

XV. 
XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 



II. 
III. 

IV. 

V. 

VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 

IX. 

X. 

XL 

XII. 

XIII. 

XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 



I. 
II. 



PAGE 

Employees in printing trades classified by occupation and 

sex 350 

Employees in railroad shop classified by occupation and as 

skilled, semi-skilled or unskilled 365 

Wages per hour of employees in the railroad shop 366 

Male and female employees in twenty-two retail stores 376 

Selling and non-selling employees, classified by character 

of store and sex of employees 376 

General occupational classification of retail store employees . . 378 
Employees in retail stores classified by sex, class of store, 

and department in which employed 379-381 

Employees in stove works, classified by occupation and as 

skilled or unskilled 392 

Employees in vehicle factory classified by occupation and 
by age 396-399 

Part VI. — Findings as to Schools. 

Statistics of enrollment, withdrawals and issue of permits to 

work 411 

Enrollment in the public schools — 1909-1916 411 

Withdrawals from Grades IV to XII, inclusive 411 

School permit-workers 417 

Manual training for white boys in the high school 431 

Manual training for white boys.in Grades V, VI and VII 433 

Manual training for colored boys in the grades and high 

school 434 

Household arts courses for white girls in the high school. . . . 435 

Household arts for white girls in Grades V, VI and VII 439 

Household arts courses for colored girls in the high school. . . 441 
Household arts courses for colored girls in Grades V, VI and VII 442 

Commercial training 443 

Teachers' training school 448 

Public school evening vocational classes for white men and 

women 449 

Public school evening vocational classes for colored men and 

women 452 

Prevocational work 454 

The Y. M. C. A. evening classes 456 

The Y. W. C. A. evening classes 459 

The Draughon-Porter Business College 461 

Lockyear's Business College 463 

Private dressmaking schools 467 

Training schools for nurses 470 

TABLES. 

Enrollment in the Evansville public schools — 1909-1916. . . . 412 
Cause of withdrawal and irregularity of attendance of children 
who withdrew from Grades IV to XII — September 1, 1915, to 
April 15, 1916 413 



XXVI 



Table of Contents 



III. 

IV. 

V. 
VI. 

VII. 

VIII. 
IX. 

X. 

XI. 

XII. 



XIII. 
XIV. 

XV. 

XVI. 

XVII. 

XVIII. 

XIX. 

XX. 



II. 
111. 

IV. 



PAGE 

Withdrawals from Grades IV to XII, by sex, age and grade — 

September 1, 1915, to April 15, 1916 414 

Acceleration and retardation of boys and girls, who withdrew 
from Grades IV to XII, September 1, 1915, to April 15, 1916. . 416 

Place of birth reported by 243 school permit-workers 417 

Place of attending school last as reported by school permit- 
workers 418 

Character of school attended last as reported by school permit- 
workers 418 

Age of permit-workers at time of leaving school 419 

Grade enrolled in at time of leaving school as reported by 

school permit-workers 419 

Sex, age and grade of school permit-workers, who withdrew from 

school, May 1, 1915, to April 30, 1916 420 

Acceleration and retardation of school permit-workers who 
withdrew from school May 1, 1915, to April 30, 1916, by 

grades 421 

Years lost by retarded boys and girls to whom permits were 
issued — May 1, 1915, to April 30, 1916, with average per 

retarded child 422 

Occupation of father reported by school permit-workers .... 423 
School permit-workers classified according to age and number 

of brothers and sisters reported at work and in school 424 

Cause of leaving school as reported by school permit-workers . 425 
Permit-workers grouped by industries in which emploj^ed .... 426 

Present occupation reported by school permit-workers 428 

Unemployed reported by school permit-workers 429 

Number of jobs held since leaving school and time out of 

school, as reported by school permit-workers 430 

Y. M. C. A. evening classes — Enrollment, attendance and 
number of lessons 456 

Part VII. — Findings as to Libraries. 

Branches 473 

Number of volumes 473 

Number of borrowers 473 

Circulation 473 

Volumes on useful arts 474 

Library borrowers among persons scheduled by the Survey . . . 475 

School deposit stations and class room libraries 477 

Industrial stations 477 

The Willard library 478 

TABLES. 

Number <>!' borrowers from Evansville Public Libraries, 

January 1, 1913, to June 1, 1916 474 

Volumes on useful arts, June 1, 1916 475 

Circulation of volumes on useful arts, January 1, 1913 to 

June 1, L916 475 

Number of borrowers among persons scheduled by the Survey. 476 



Table of Contents xxvii 

PAGE 

V. Circulation at industrial stations from date of opening to 

June 1, 1916 477 

Part VIII. — Vocational Needs of Colored People. 

Colored population 479 

Vocational needs 479 

Enrollment in colored schools 483 

Occupations of colored people 486 

Suggestions for vocational courses 487 

TABLES. 

I. Colored population of Evansville, 6-20 years of age for each 

year — 1910-1916. School enumerations 480 

II. Enrollment of colored pupils in Evansville public schools — 

1909-1910 484 

III. Number and percentage attending school of the colored 

population 6-20 years of age — 1909-1916 484 

APPENDIX. 

I. Courses for evening trade extension classes in Evansville .... 491 

II. Pupils record card in agriculture 499 

III. Chart of courses of education for elementary schools 508 

IV. Selection and training of teachers 509 



The Evansville Vocational Survey 



PART I 

INTRODUCTORY STATEMENT 

1. Purpose, methods, scope and co-operating agencies of the 
Survey. 

Purpose. The purpose of the Evansville Vocational Survey- 
is to provide a program of vocational and prevocational instruction 
and training in Evansville, based upon findings relating to the 
industries, wage-earning employments, schools, and libraries of 
the community. The State Survey Committee has been instructed 
to formulate a scheme of vocational courses, and to indicate spe- 
cifically in what ways the practical arts work — instruction in man- 
ual training, agriculture, drawing, and household arts— now being 
given in the schools, should be modified and developed to give 
it value as prevocational training. 

This purpose is defined in the original instructions to the 
State Survey Committee, which was directed to make specific 
recommendations covering the following points : 

1. Necessary or desirable reorganization of the Practical Arts 
work to be done in the regular schools. (See Section 5 of the 
Indiana Vocational Law.) 

2. The importance and place of such prevocational work in 
a state scheme for efficient general and vocational education. 

3. Types of vocational departments and schools required to 
meet the needs of the boys and girls and the men and women of the 
community studied. 

4. Kind of trade and educational agreements that should be 
made with the parties most vitally interested in providing vocational 
education. 

5. Use and place of the public library in an efficient scheme 
for vocational training. 

6. Financing vocational work. Definite suggestions in regard 
to the administrative machinery desirable or necessary for carry- 
ing out the recommendations made by the State Survey Com- 
mittee. 

Recommendations upon these points are to be submitted by 
the State Survey Committee to the local school authorities and 

1-5543 



2 Evansville Vocational Survey 

State Board of Education for approval, and when so approved, 
these recommendations become mandatory upon the responsible 
parties to the agreement under which the Survey was undertaken, 
who have contracted under that agreement to carry out, as rapidly 
as possible, the recommendations for vocational education made 
by the State Survey Committee. Every activity of the Survey 
has been directed to the single purpose expressed in these recom- 
mendations, proposing a comprehensive and suitable scheme of 
vocational education for adoption and development in Evansville. 

Method. Under the plan adopted by the State Board, no 
Survey is undertaken unless the initiative comes from the local 
community, and unless the cost of such Survey is jointly paid 
by such local community and the state. In the case of Evansville, 
the State Board of Education was asked by the Superintendent 
of Schools and the local Board of Education to make a study of 
the industries and schools of Evansville to obtain the facts needec! 
to enable them to organize and develop vocational instruction in 
an efficient and economical way. Arrangements were made for 
obtaining the co-operation in this work of the local Board of Edu- 
cation, the Superintendent of Schools, and prominent citizens in 
I lie community. It was also part of the state plan to use, as far 
as possible, the local teachers and school authorities in making 
the Survey, so that trained workers might be left on the job after 
the work of the Survey had been completed. 

The scope and method to be employed in the Evansville Survey 
was worked out by the State Survey Committee in conference with 
the State Director for Vocational Education, and the Director of 
Vocational Research. Under instructions from the State Survey 
Committee, and in conformity with the plan outlined, the State 
Director of Vocational Research proceeded to ascertain (1) from 
a survey of the local industries "the facts that are needed to out- 
line an efficient and economical program for vocational educa- 
tion;" and (2) from a survey of the schools and libraries, "to 
what extent, if at all, the vocational needs of the community are 
already being met by existing agents." 

According to the original plan adopted by the State Board of 
Education for making Indiana Surveys, the recommendations of 
the State Survey Committee and the findings of the Survey might 
be submitted by the committee to practical school men within or 
without the state, including men and women with successful experi- 



Introductory Statement 3 

ence in vocational schools, to obtain their criticisms and sugges- 
tions, before the recommendations were submitted to the local 
school authorities and the State Board of Education for final 
approval. 

The field methods of the Survey were those of observation in the 
shop, factory, or store ; conferences with those engaged in industrial 
or commercial work; inquiry by schedule or questionaire ; and 
examination of official records regarding, for example, school age 
population, school attendance, the issue of work permits to boys 
and girls under 16 years of age, and utilization of library facilities. 

Agents of the Survey provided with schedules covering the 
specific inquiries which had been defined in the general scheme 
for Indiana Survey work, entered the workshops of Evansville, 
and by observation and conference, collected data relating to the 
establishment, the industry, and the wage-earning employments 
in the industry. These data covered industrial organization, equip- 
ment, and processes; apprenticeship or other systems of training 
workers ; opportunities for advancement ; wages, hours, and con- 
stancy of employment ; specialization of labor ; and vocational 
needs of workers in the industry. 

The productive work of each establishment was analyzed by 
the Survey agents, who followed the material as it was adyanced 
from process to process, emerging finally as a finished prod n el. 
Specific occupations recognized in the factory organization were 
noted, and the precise service required of the individual worker. 
Thus the productive work of the industry was analyzed into wage- 
earning occupations, and these wage-earning occupations were 
further analyzed into specific services rendered in the exercise of 
physical strength, technical or manual skill, or judgment on the 
part of the worker. 

In this way the local conditions with reference to which voca- 
tional work in the schools must be organized were defined in the 
detailed findings for each industry, giving an account of the indus- 
try as developed locally, and an analysis of each occupation in 
the industry. The judgment of employers as to the expediency 
of instituting courses of vocational instruction and training along 
specific lines was recorded, and their willingness to co-operate with 
the schools in this work was determined. Forms of cooperative 
agreements were worked out and presented to employers for their 
revision and approval. Similarly the disposition of workers in 



4 EVANSVILLE^VOCATIONAL SURVEY 

the several occupations to undertake courses of vocational instruc- 
tion and training, in part-time day and in evening classes was 
ascertained. 

Data relating to the schools were compiled from the school 
records of enrollment, attendance, courses of instruction, and super- 
vision of children at work on permits issued under the Indiana 
law. Individual schedules were obtained from children at work 
in wage-earning employments, and individual statements from 
teachers in the schools. The local records of school enumerations 
were examined, and by comparison with the school enrollment, 
some approximation was made to the number of children of 
school age not in school. 

Finally, compilations from library records showing number of 
borrowers, number of volumes on vocational and other subjects, 
and circulation of these volumes were examined, and compilations 
made showing the extent to which library facilities are utilized 
and are capable of being utilized in vocational work. 

The Educational Committee of the Chamber of Commerce 
appointed a sub-committee "to determine what industrial education 
would best fit the negro of the city for his place in the industrial 
world." This committee reported that the method pursued by 
it in its special survey work was an adaptation of the general plan 
used by the General Survey Committee It called to its assistance 
three of the negro citizens who were in its judgment best qualified 
"to comprehend the desires, needs, and industrial outlook of the 
negro race of Evansville." The special findings of this Committee 
are given in Part VIII of this report. (Pp. 479 to 489.) 

Contributory and Directive Agencies. The agencies which were 
active in directing the Survey and which contributed in time and 
money to the investigation, are the following: (1) The State 
Board of Education; (2) the Evansville Board of Education; (3) 
the State Survey Committee; and (4) the local Survey Committee. 
The State Board of Education and the Evansville Board of Educa- 
tion were the responsible parties to the agreement entered into 
for making the Survey, and for carrying out the recommendations 
developed out of the Survey findings. 

As members of the State Survey Committee, the following indi- 
viduals contributed liberally of their time to the work, co-operating 
with Charles II. Winslow, Director of Vocational Research, and 
\V. P. Hook, State Director of Vocational Education, in determining 



Introductory Statement 5 

the methods and scope of the Survey, and in making specific recom- 
mendations for vocational instruction to be organized at Evans- 
vine — C. R. Richards, Director of Cooper Union, New York City, 
Chairman of the State Survey Committee; C. A. Prosser, Director 
of Dunwoody Industrial Institute, Minneapolis, Minn. ; Alvin E. 
Dodd, Secretary of the National Society for the Promotion of Indus- 
trial Education, New York City ; John A. Lapp, Member of National 
Commission for Vocational Education and Director Indiana Bureau 
of Legislative Information; R, J. Leonard, Professor of Vocational 
Education, Indiana University; Z. M. Smith, State Supervisor 
of Agricultural Education; Adelaide Steele Baylor, State Super- 
visor of Domestic Science and G. I. Christie, Director of Agricul- 
ture Extension, Purdue University. 

Conf event ial and Co-operative Agencies. The following organ- 
izations of Evansville also rendered valuable assistance in making 
the Survey. Without their active co-operation and help, the Evans- 
ville Survey could not have been made : 

Chamber of Commerce 

Furniture Manufacturers' Association 
Master Plumbers' Association 

Sheet Metal Employers' Association 
United Typothetae 

Mill Men's Association 

Retail Merchants' Association 
Central Labor Union 
Typographical Union 

Sheet Metal Workers' Union 
Woodworkers' Union 
Pressmen's Union 

Stationary Engineers 
Carpenters' Union 
Painters' Union 

Plumber and Steamfitters' Union 
Parent-Teachers' Clubs 

Federated Women's Clubs 

Young Woman's Christian Association 
Rotary Club 

Young Fellows ' Club 

Ministerial Association 

Committee on Women in Industry 



6 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The Local Survey Committee. The agreement between the 
Indiana State Board of Education and the Evansville School 
Board reads as follows : 

"A Local Survey Committee shall be appointed by the Board 
of Education and approved by the General Survey Committee 
and the Vocational Committee of the State Board. 

This Committee shall be representative in its character to the 
extent that it shall include representatives of the manufacturing 
interests, trade union interests, representatives of the Chamber of 
Commerce, and other persons especially interested in vocational 
education. ' ' 

In pursuance of this agreement the Board of Education of 
Evansville, appointed April 3, 1916, the following persons to be 
known as the Local Survey Committee : 

Joseph Francis Reitz, Chairman, President of the City National 
Bank, and President of the City Art League. 

Benjamin Bosse, Mayor of Evansville, President of the Globe- 
Bosse- World Furniture Factory, and President of the West Side 
Bank. 

Mrs. Albion Fellows Bacon, Director of the National Housing 
Association. 

Henry C. Murphy, President of the Chamber of Commerce, and 
I 'resident of the Evansville Courier Publishing Company. 

W. E. Tieman, President of the Central Labor Union, and 
Business Agent for the Painters' Union. 

(J. U. Bippus, Manager for Bippus & Son, General Contractors. 

John D. Craft, Vice-President and Superintendent of the Her- 
cules Factories. 

John H. Berryhill, Superintendent of the Vulcan Plow Com- 
pany. 

F. L. Erlbacher, Secretary of the Advance Stove Works. 

Mrs. Charles W. Wittenbracker, First Vice-President of the 
Indiana Parent-Teachers' Association, Chairman of the Parent- 
Teachers' Committee of Federated Clubs. 

Frank Lohoff, President of the Evansville*Edge 'Pool Works, 
and President West Side Building and Loan Association. 

Oscar A. Klamer, President of the Klamer-Goebel Furniture 
Company, President of the Wertz-Klamer Furniture Company, 
and Secretary and General Manager of the Schelosky Table Com- 
pany. 



Introductory Statement 7 

Max DeJong, owner of tho DeJong Store. 

Patrick McCue, Foreman in the L. & N. Railroad Shops. 

Under the agreement, the 4 duties of the Local Survey Committee 
were defined as follows : 

"This Committee is to he a steering committee for the Direr 
tor of the Survey. It is to assist him in getting favorable entrance 
to industry for his work; to give him advice and guidance in the 
selection of industries to he investigated ; to offer advice and sug- 
gestions when called upon in reference to any matter concerning 
the Survey; to assist him with the conferences to he held with 
employers and employees of the leading industries to be studied 
and for which vocational training is to he organized or recom- 
mended. The members of the Local Survey Committee are expected 
to organize themselves, and to hold meetings at stated times, 
as well as to be subject to the call of the Director of the Survey 
individually and as a whole." 

In the work of conducting the Vocational Survey of Evansville, 
the Director has acted continuously in accordance with the advice 
of the Local Committee, which has in e\evy respect fulfilled its obli- 
gation under the agreement. The success of the Survey was, in 
fact, in a very large degree made possible by the active interest 
and co-operation of the Local Committee. 

Industrial Committees. In the several industries committees 
were organized to promote the Survey in these industries by co-oper- 
ation with the Survey Staff under the general plan as formulated 
by the state and local authorities. Such committees were organized 
in the printing trades, the sheet metal trades, the plumbing trades, 
the furniture industry, the planing mills, and the lumber mills. 
A committee of retail merchants, one of physicians, and one of 
members of hospital staffs, also were appointed, and rendered 
material assitance in the work. 

The loeal staff. The local staff of the Survey comprised other 
than the Director and Assistant Director and Chief Statistician, 
eight public school teachers, four men and four women. Six other 
teachers were temporarily members of the regular staff, and many 
other teachers in the public schools rendered voluntary assistance. 
As has been stated, it was the policy of the Survey to employ teach- 
ers of the local public schools, so far as possible, in the belief that 
the interest created by this employment and the knowledge gained 
regarding local conditions and the purpose of the Survey would 



8 Evansville Vocational Survey 

be a valuable asset for the community in the future development 
of vocational education. The success of vocational education in 
any community depends largely upon the capacity of the local 
school authorities to continue the work initiated by the Survey. It is 
essential for the permanent success of the work in any community 
that the local authorities shall in a sense maintain a continuous 
Survey of local industrial conditions, since Only by such continu- 
ous observation of local conditions and development can the voca- 
tional work in the schools be held close to the changing conditions 
of work in the shops resulting from the introduction of new 
processes, and equipment, and from modification of shop practice. 

Scope of the Vocational Survey. The vocational survey cov- 
ered 333 Evansville establishments, employing over 12,000 work- 
ers, the number of men and boys being approximately 8,000, and 
the number of women and girls, 4,000. In making up the report 
of the Industrial findings, the 333 establishments surveyed have 
been grouped into 15 classes and 8 sub-classes, and for each class 
or sub-class, the occupations represented have been analyzed. 

The industrial analyses given under industrial headings in the 
body of this report compose a description of the equipment, 
processes, and occupations of the industries and of commercial 
establishments surveyed. Each industrial section presents the find- 
ings of the Director, including data so far as data are available, 
indicating the importance of the industry; products or specialties; 
its processes ; its physical equipment of machinery and tools ; the 
probability of its development in the future ; the character of labor 
required, skilled and unskilled; the specialization of labor; the 
sort of training and knowledge essential to the development of 
efficiency; the source of the labor supply; the age of workers; 
shop training of workers; apprenticeship system; labor turnover; 
and opportunity for advancement. 

With reference to each industry, answers based upon the data 
of the Survey have been formulated specifically to such inquiries 
as the following: Is the industry locally sufficiently important to 
justify the establishment of vocational courses in the public schools ? 
Is the range of competition and opportunity for advancement 
in the industry national or local ? Are the products of the industry 
standardized, or made to special order? Are they simple or varied? 
What are the physical characteristics of the industry as regards, 
for example, the utilization of machinery? Are the processes highly 



Introductory Statement 9 

specialized? Can the industry be developed locally and what are 
the conditions of .progress? What is the source of the labor sup- 
ply ? Do boys or girls constitute a large proportion of the working 
force? Is the labor force, as regards occupations and place of 
employment, stable or floating? What knowledge, experience, skill 
or other personal qualities are required of the workers? Is there 
any apprenticeship or other system of training labor in the shop? 
Is promotion in the shop systematic, by merit for efficiency, or 
accidental? Is technical knowledge, shop experience, or any sort 
of public school instruction of economic advantage to the worker? 
Does the discipline of the industry, as conducted in the community, 
contribute to good citizenship? Can it be made to do so? Is the 
industry one that should be encouraged by the expenditure of 
public money for the vocational training of its workers? Does the 
industry provide employment for skilled, high grade, intelligent 
workers? Does it provide such employment to the extent that 
it might? Have the workers adequate elementary school train- 
ing? Have they adequate vocational training? Can the school 
co-operate with the industry advantageously in giving such 
training as is needed? Are employers and workers disposed 
to co-operate with the schools in the development of voca- 
tional instruction and training ? What is the specifically vocational 
value in the industry of school training? What requirements does 
the industry make upon the public schools, that the schools ought 
to meet? What advantage to the worker, the industry, and to the 
community may be expected to result from a systematic effort 
on the part of the schools to meet these legitimate requirements? 
Would vocational training for the industry, under a plan of 
co-operation between the industry and the schools pay, having 
regard to the interests of the worker, the employer, and the com- 
munity ? 

The answers to these questions depend necessarily largely upon 
the character of the employments or occupations in the industry, 
and in each industrial section, the general findings for the industry 
are followed by detailed occupational analyses. 

Scope of the School Survey. The extent to which the schools 
are meeting the legitimate requirements of the community for voca- 
tional education is indicated in the report of the School Survey, 
covering the work of public and of private schools. 

With reference to the School Survey, it should be noted that 



10 Evansville Vocational Survey 

data of record were not available, such as are called for by several 
of the inquiries proposed, although some of this data should have 
been available under the requirements of the Indiana law. For 
example, accurate and complete data were not available relating 
to regularity of school attendance; and to the occupation, earning, 
and constancy of employment of the children at work on permits. 
Such data as were available have been collected and tabulated, and 
additional information has been gathered by agents of the Survey. 

The report of the School Survey presents tabulations showing 
school enrollment each year, 1909-1916; withdrawals of children 
from schools by grades ; reasons for withdrawal ; retardation ; 
number of children at work on permits; age, grade, and retardation 
of permit- workers at time of leaving school; present employment 
of children under 16 at work; unemployment; number of jobs; 
character of school last attended ; occupation of fathers ; brothers 
and sisters at work, and at school; desire for further school train- 
ing; manual training courses in the schools; evening vocational 
courses given for men, and for women; and prevocational instruc- 
tion. 

In the report of the School Survey is given a brief account 
of the rearrangement of the school curriculum involved in the 
recent establishment of the Junior High School, and of the scheme 
of prevocational and vocational instruction proposed by the 
local authorities under this new arrangement. This scheme of 
instruction comprehends certain part-time and evening courses 
organized as an immediate consequence of the survey work to pro- 
vide for journeymen, apprentices, women, and girls who have 
expressed a desire for courses of instruction along certain lines. 

Scope of flu Library Surra/. The Library Survey presents 
data showing the number of brandies, reading rooms, school deposit 
stations, class room Libraries, and industrial stations for white 
ami for colored people; volumes in branches; number of borrowers 
among juveniles, children at work, students, and other classes; 
circulation among white and colored, by branches and schools; 
number and circulation of volumes on useful arts; and occupations 
of borrowers. 

Scope of the Survey for colored people. Tn this section the 
special vocational needs of the colored people arc stated, in so 
far as these needs seem to require special consideration. A general 
outline is given of work proposed by the committee of colored citi 



Introductory Statement 11 

zens for a junior industrial course, a two-year vocational course, a 
technical high school course, and for evening and part-time indus- 
trial classes. 

2. The Case Stated 

Cost of inefficiency in Evansville. One general conclusion of 
the Evansville Vocational Survey is that the price paid for inef- 
ficiency by Evansville employers and wage earners individually, 
and by the community collectively is enormous, and that this 
large item of cost in economic service is a serious handicap to 
the community in its effort to improve, or even to maintain pres- 
ent standards of economic and social welfare. In any accurate 
cost accounting by this community, inefficiency must figure as 
a very large item of expense. This is perhaps the most important 
finding of the Survey. 

The cost of efficiency — the cost, that is to say, of developing 
and maintaining an adequate system of vocational instruction 
and training — would be inconsiderable in amount, as compared 
with the price now being paid from year to year for inefficiency. 
For a price far below that which the community is now paying 
for inefficiency, it could purchase a high degree of general ef- 
ficiency, and the advantage of efficiency over inefficiency would 
then be a clear economic profit to the community, over and above 
what it is earning under present conditions. 

The social gains which would result from increase in efficiency, 
if they can in any sense be measured against the economic gains, 
would be of even greater value, since a condition of efficiency is 
incomparably superior socially as well as economically to a 
condition of inefficiency. 

In considering the cost of establishing and maintaining a 
system of vocational education in Evansville, it should be borne 
in mind that no approach has yet been made in this community 
to that degree of efficiency where the cost of acquiring greater 
efficiency begins to approximate the economic gains to be earned 
by the added efficiency acquired. On the contrary, every dollar 
wisely spent now for vocational education and training will 
certainly yield back in the course of a few years the original 
investment together with a large dividend of profit to the com- 
munity and to the state. It will probably be many years before 
the system of vocational education can be developed in Evans- 
ville to the point where any expenditure for its further extension 



12 Evansville Vocational Survey 

and improvement will be a doubtfully profitable investment of 
public money. 

Abandonment of children 14 io 16 years of age. Another 
conclusion derived from the Evansville Survey is that, although 
generally employers do not want to employ in their shops boys 
and girls under 16 years of age, it is nevertheless true that the 
schools do not provide for these children any sort of instruction 
which will warrant keeping them in school, except for the chil- 
dren of those parents who can afford education for their children 
as a luxury, without regard to its economic utility. 

The 14-to-16-years old children are not wanted in industry, and 
are not provided for in the schools. 

It is clearly established in the findings of the Survey that 
these children leave school in large numbers, although it is not 
possible to determine from data available where they are going 
or have been going for years past. For these ages, which embrace 
the most critical period in the youth's development, the com- 
munity has no data sufficiently accurate and complete to be of 
any value. The child is not graduated by the school into industry, 
but is rather, in the large majority of cases, submerged in the 
community's life, and left to establish such uncertain economic 
relationships as accident may make possible. Boys and girls drop 
out of school to take up one employment or another, as accidental 
opportunity presents itself, generally without intelligent choice 
or guidance with reference to personal qualifications. 

The child thus vanishes from the educational purview at pre- 
cisely that age when he or she especially requires vocational guid- 
ance, instruction and training ; and he does not appear for several 
years established in the field of economic activities. 

The school training of a large proportion of Evansville work- 
ers in fact amounts to only five or six grades. These workers, 
young and old, have with few exceptions received very inade- 
quate, if any industrial training other than that which could 
be picked up upon the job, and in many establishments the product 
has been so standardized, and the separate processes have been 
so simplified that shop work has comparatively little value as a 
means of gaining general industrial training. 

For the workers of inadequate schooling and industrial train- 
ing, the public schools have provided only a meager opportunity 
for improvement in any sort of continuation courses. In the 
mass, under the present conditions, the workers of Evansville, 



Introductory Statement 13 

young and old, have been condemned to live on in a condition of 
perpetual ignorance, and of such general inefficiency in industry, 
as results from extreme specialization of processes and rigidity in 
the organization of labor. Unless some adjustment and develop- 
ment of the school system with reference to the local needs is 
effected, present conditions will continue indefinitely. 

It is true that a large proportion of Evansville workers 
have come into the city from the surrounding country, and even 
from neighboring states. 

The day schools at present provide practically no vocational 
work, except in so far as the high school commercial courses may 
be considered vocational in character. The grade school manual 
training courses, owing to the large classes and the short periods 
have practically no specific vocational value, and under present 
conditions, which will be described, they have very little specific 
educational value of any sort. Only a small proportion of the 
boys of the city enter the high, school, and for a very small 
proportion of these boys does manual training constitute in any 
immediate sense a preparation for industrial work. 

Boys and girls who leave school at the age of 14 to 16 years 
of age are not old enough to enter upon an apprenticeship, and 
in the main the doors of the more desirable skilled employments 
are closed to them. The result is this, on leaving school, they 
shift about from one occupation to another, with little opportunity 
to acquire skill or to increase their wage-earning capacity in 
any occupation. By far the larger number soon attain their maxi- 
mum earning capacity, which they find inadequate for the main- 
tenance of decent standards of living when they become men and 
women. 

Necessity for raising the age limit for compulsory education. 
Every consideration requires that the compulsory education law 
be so changed as to provide that 16 years instead of 14, shall be 
the age limit of compulsory education, and that a type of edu- 
cation shall be developed in the schools specially devised to meet 
the requirements of children 14 to 16 years of age. 

Evansville manufacturers have been charged with promoting 
the present system which permits children 14 to 16 years of age 
to be employed, but the evidence of the returns is that they do 
not want this kind of help. The men at the head of the industries 
report that boys of 14 to 16 years of age are not satisfactory, 



14 Evansville Vocational Survey 

and they complain of a school administration which permits hoys 
to get out on the streets, and hunt for jobs so early. 

The all-day industrial school cannot teach a trade in the full 
sense of the term, but experience shows that it can prepare boys 
for apprenticeships and provide them with a fund of information 
which will greatly increase their efficiency in after life. 

Violation of the law. Under the Indiana law it is the duty 
of every parent or guardian of any child "to cause such child 
to attend regularh r a public, private, or parochial day school, 
or two or more such schools," for the full school term of the com- 
mon schools, each year from the age of 7 to the age of 14 years, 
unless such child is "physically or mentally disqualified." It is 
further provided that children 14 to 16 years of age shall similarly 
attend school, "unless actually and regularly employed," during 
school hours "in a useful employment or service," or lawfully 
employed in a gainful service, agreeably to the provisions of 
the law concerning employment of children in gainful occupations. 
It is provided further that "if a child otherwise subject to the 
provisions of this act shall be, as evidenced by a certificate of a 
reputable, duly licensed, and practicing physician either physi- 
cally or mentally unfit to attend school, then during such dis- 
ability this act shall not apply to such child." 

It is important to note that in the case of each child exempted 
on account of disability from the compulsory requirement of at- 
tendance at school, a physician's certificate of such disability 
must be procured. 

Section 2 of the law relates to the employment of children 
under 16 years of age, and provides that such children shall pro- 
cure a certificate from the executive officer of the school corpora- 
tion, or some person designated by him, showing the age of the 
child, and that the child has completed the fifth grade, or its 
equivalent, together with a signed statement from the child's 
employer "showing the place and character of the employment . " 

Attendance officers are authorized under the law to enter any 
establishment and to examine certificates issued for children 
employed under 16 years of age. A parent or guardian duly 
notified that a child under his or her control or charge is "habitu- 
ally tardy or absent from school," after five days from the date 
of the notice and upon complaint made by the officer in the Juve- 
nile Court, or any court of record, "shall be adjudged guilty of 
a misdemeanor, and upon conviction thereof shall be fined not 



Introductory Statement 15 

less than one dollar nor more than twenty-five dollars, to which 
may be added in the discretion of the court, imprisonment in 
the county jail for not less than two nor more than ninety days." 
An officer failing to perform any duties imposed by the act "shall, 
upon conviction, be fined in the sum of five dollars for each such 
failure." Any person employing a child in violation of the law 
"shall be guilty of a misdemeanor and upon conviction thereof 
shall be fined not less than ten dollars nor more than fifty 
dollars." 

One disconcerting condition uncovered by the Survey was 
the high mortality rate as regards school attendance in the lower 
grades. According to the Federal Census of 1910, 4,145 children 
6 to 17 years of age had not attended school of any kind during 
the period from September 1, 1909, to April 15, 1910. There is 
no evidence in the school enrollment figures for the years 1909 
to 1916, that the number of children not in school has been ma- 
terially, if at all, reduced. 

Accurate figures regarding the number of children 7 to 16 
years of age not in school are not available in any records kept 
by the local authorities. Some of these children were found at 
work in the industrial and commercial establishments of the 
community, but the number of children working on permits, 
as approximately determined from the school records, was only 
243. No considerable number of permits have been issued to 
children working on permits upon occasion of their changing 
From one occupation to another. 

Although reports obtained by agents of the Survey show 
that there is the usual amount of drifting from one employment 
to another, on the part of permit-workers, and although the 
Indiana law specifically requires that the child under 16 at work 
shall secure a new permit whenever he secures a new job, prac 
tieally it is true of Evansville that when the child 14 to 16 years 
of age leaves school to go to work with or without a permit, his 
subsequent career in industry to the age of 16, of which the school 
under the law must keep a record, is nevertheless entirely unre- 
corded by the school authorities. 

In the past two years more than 100 cases of truancy have 
been brought before the court for adjudication, and no disposition 
has been made of these cases. It is not believed that these cases 
represent even approximately the full number of truant children 
in the community. It is believed, rather, that this condition of 



16 Evansville Vocational Survey 

truancy is general in the Evansville population of school age. 
This condition can be remedied only by a strict enforcement of 
the law, which requires vigilance on the part of the officers, and 
prompt and efficient action on the part of the court. 

The condition is one which suggests that more aggressive 
effort by the authorities is required to secure enforcement of the 
law, which in its intention, at least, seems unambiguous and ade- 
quate. If the administrative provisions of the law are defective, 
an amendment of these provisions should be recommended. 

The apportionment of state funds for the support of public 
schools, on the basis of the school age population, clearly pre- 
sumes that the intention of the school attendance law is observed 
in the community, namely, that school instruction shall be pro- 
vided in the community for all children under 14, and for all 
children 14 to 16 years of age who have not completed the fifth 
grade, and that all children under 16 shall be either attending 
school, or at work on permits issued by the school authorities in 
accordance with specific provisions of the law. 

In this connection the section of the law relating to truancy 
may be cited. The authority vested by this section in the local 
officers and in the judge of the Juvenile Court seems not to have 
been very generally exercised. 

"Section 11. Any child subject to the provisions of this 
act who habitually absents itself from school may be declared by 
the attendance officer and superintendent of schools of the county 
or of the city where it resides a confirmed truant. Such con- 
firmed truant may be sentenced by the judge of the Juvenile 
Court, or by the judge of the Circuit acting as judge of the 
Juvenile Court, or by judge of any court of record, if a boy, to 
the Indiana boys' school, or, if a girl, to the Indiana girls' school 
provided such child is within the age limit set for admission to 
such institutions." 

Under the law, it is provided that "enumerators of school 
children, in taking the annual school census shall ascertain and 
record the place and date of birth of every child enumerated." 
Such a census is clearly required not only to provide a basis 
for the apportionment of school funds, but as a measure of the 
efficiency of the schools in reaching the school population. In 
Evansville the records of the school enumerators do not conform 
to the requirements of the law. 



Introductory Statement 17 

Establishment of a Junior High School. A reorganization of 
the high school and grade courses has been approved by the 
local authorities, which provides for the establishment of a Junior 
High School course comprising the seventh, eighth and ninth 
grades. This scheme of organization as visionally worked out 
by the local authorities is generally accepted as an improvement 
upon the superseded scheme of organization. It is believed that 
the new arrangement of the curriculum, breaking up the old 
conventional four-year high school course, is essential for the 
effective organization, not only of vocational, but of general 
courses of instruction, and that definite provision must be made 
for the ultimate arrangement of courses in accordance with the 
six-three-and-three plan. 

The opinion prevails that the four high school grades, nine 
to twelve, inclusive, do not represent any well-defined unit of 
vocational instruction. Prevocational work, it is believed, should 
begin in the seventh grade, strictly vocational work being de- 
ferred until the tenth grade. The Junior High School would 
thus provide a proper administrative unit for the conduct of 
prevocational work. 

It would not necessarily follow that no strictly vocational 
work should be undertaken in the Junior High School, but any 
scheme of vocational education would be much more easily ad- 
ministered in a system which grouped grades seven, eight and 
nine under supervision somewhat separate from that of the 
lower and of the higher grades. 

Such a school would, in fact, serve as a try-out school for 
children progressing through the grades. In the three grades 
constituting the Junior High School course cultural, inform- 
ational and prevocational instruction will, if present intentions 
are carried out, be so combined as to enable pupils to make intel- 
ligent elections with reference to more advanced general and 
vocational courses, and the Junior High School course, also, will 
be sufficiently varied in scope to provide an adequate basis for 
intelligent election of still more advanced work. 

The work of vocational guidance will properly begin in and 
be continued throughout the Junior High School course. In 
connection with this course an effort will be made to chart the 
vocations, to prepare for distribution in printed form inform- 
ation regarding vocations, and to study in classes the whole 
range of opportunities for life work in the vocational field. 

2—5543 



18 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The intermediate Junior High School will serve in general 
as the administrative agency for meeting the need of adolescent 
boys and girls for training in the manual and industrial arts. 
The Minneapolis Special Committee has said that "these prevo- 
cational courses should furnish to pupils who desire them, oppor- 
t unities to gain definite knowledge about any specific practice 
in several of the most important industrial and commercial arts 
in order to (1) interest and hold motorminded children; (2) furnish 
new avenues of expression in learning and doing; (3) aid in proper 
training in book subjects; and (4) help young people to select 
the kind of training and kind of occupation they desire to follow." 

The training in each of the several manual arts should be 
varied in kind and grade, but should for each line of work be 
sufficient in amount, and be continued over a period sufficiently 
protracted to have real disciplinary value, and to provide an expe- 
rience for each pupil upon the basis of which an intelligent selec- 
tion of a vocation may be made with reference to the personal 
qualifications of the child. 

Appointment of an assistant to the Superintendent. An assist- 
ant to the Superintendent of Schools should, it is believed, be 
appointed as Director of Vocational Education, to have general 
charge of all vocational work for men and women, including the 
prevocational work in the grades and in the high school. The 
duties of the Director should not be, in any narrow sense, simply 
administrative, but should embrace, under definite provisions, 
systematic effort for the continuous development of vocational 
education in Evansville. He should to this end establish and 
maintain an intimate relationship with the industrial and com- 
mercial life of the community, being the chief agent for bringing 
the school into the industry, and the industry into the school. 

Museum of industry and commt ret . As an important adjunct 
of vocational education and as one means of creating a com 
munity interest in vocational work, it is urged that the vocational 
department of the public schools establish a museum of Evans 
ville's industries and commerce, which shall aim to present in 
concrete forms not only the character of Evansville 's industries, 
hut also their historical development. 

Such a museum, if efficiently conducted, would become in the 
course of a few years, an exceedingly important exhibit of local 
industries— an exhibit arranged with reference to the interests 
and needs of vocational instruction. In such a museum children 



Introductory Statement 10 

in the lower grades, too young to be taken through the factories, 
would find a concrete presentation of the community's industrial 
and commercial character. 

For the older and more advanced pupils exhibits should bo 
arranged with a view to supplementing actual conditions existing 
in the working establishments of the community. As regards the 
industrial character and development of Evansville, these exhibits 
would constitute a means of vocational instruction far superior 
to any written descriptive account of the city; and they would 
constitute further an excellent means of stimulating a general 
community interest, not only in vocational education itself, but 
as well in all civic efforts for the city's social and economic ad- 
vancement. 

Vocational expert for shop and school co-ordination work. 
The scheme of vocational education in Evansville, it is believed, 
should comprehend some systematic and continuous treatment of 
shop conditions in the community with a view to utilizing shop 
work and equipment to the full extent possible for the training 
of beginners, apprentices and journeymen employed in these 
establishments. Ultimately, if not at the outset, an expert in 
shop practice should be appointed to the staff of the vocational 
department of the public schools. It should be the duty of this 
expert so to organize conditions prevailing in the shops as to 
obtain for the workers in the shops, young and old, the greatest 
amount of educational value out of their wage-earning employ- 
ments, by providing for such an organization and administration 
of the labor force in the shop as will yield an all-round training 
for the industry. This work will, of course, necessarily be con- 
ditioned upon the full co-operation of emplo} r ers with the school 
authorities, and since one result of such expert service would 
certainly be an increase in the efficieney of the working force 
in each establishment, it may fairly be assumed that employers 
would co-operate freely in this line of work. The organization 
of the working force in each establishment should provide for 
oaeh worker a definite line of training and promotion, thus mak- 
ing his wage-earning pursuit to the full extent possible, a means 
of continuous education and advancement in the industry. 

Informal vocational instruction. The conditions in Evansville 
are such that the vocational school authorities might advantage- 
ously undertake to provide systematically some informal instruc- 
tion suited to the needs and interests of groups of workers, who 



20 Evansville Vocational Survey 

may or may not individually be enrolled in formal courses. This 
work might, for example, embrace courses of lectures with slides, 
bearing upon local industries, given by men active in these indus- 
tries, or by others qualified to give formal or informal talks bear- 
ing upon industrial conditions and processes. Where it seemed 
advisable such lectures might be given to the workers in the 
establishments in which they are employed — especially in cases 
where the lecture or talk deals with the processes or conditions 
obtaining in the given shop. A series of brief informal talks upon 
period furniture, for example, might very well be prepared for 
workers employed in the furniture factories. 



PART II 

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AS TO 
INDUSTRIES 

Selection of industries for Survey. Prior to initiation of the 
field work of the Survey, such data as were available relating to the 
industrial character of the community were compiled, with a view 
to defining in terms of industrial units the scope of the investigation. 
It was realized that as an intensive examination and analysis of 
conditions prevailing in industry, the investigation must neces- 
sarily be selective, and it was clearly important that the indus- 
tries selected for the Survey should embrace the principal wage- 
earning employments of Evansville. 

The Federal census returns showing for 1910 the number of 
persons 10 years of age and over, engaged in each occupation, 
covering all trades or employments, provided one general basis 
of selection in the Survey. A summary of these data is given in 
Table I. 



Table I — Gainfully Employed Persons in Specified Industrial and 
Occupational Classes — 1910* 



Industrial and Occupational 
Classes 


Numbef, 


op Workers 


— 1910 


TOTAL 


male 


FEMALE 


Total 


30,576 

13,778 

4,253 

4,192 

2,976 

1,950 

1 ,630 

787 

563 

447 

13,778 

3,257 

1,007 

793 


23,386 

11,096 

3,696 

1 ,650 

2,889 

1,299 

1,004 

745 

562 

445 

11,096 

3,227 
987 
793 


7 ,190 


Manufacturing industries 

Trade, Banking and Insurance 


2,682 
557 


Domestic and personal service 


2,542 


Transportation 

Clerical work 


87 
65 1 


Professional service 

Agriculture 


626 

42 


Mining 


1 


Public service 


2 


Manufacturing industries 

Building trades and industries 


2,682 
30 


Laborers (building and hand trades).. 
Carpenters 


20 



*For full detail regarding occupations in 1910, see Thirteenth Census, Volume IV,'pp/226-231. 

21 



22 Evansville Vocational Surrey 

Table I — Gainfully Employed Persons in Specified Industrial and 
Occupational Classes — 1910* — Continued 



Industrial and Occupational 

( 'l.ASSES 



NUMBER OF Workers — 1910 



Building trades and industries — Continued 
Painters, glaziers and varnishers. . . 
Builders and building contractors . . 

Cabinet makers 

Brick and stonemasons. 

Plumbers, gas, and steamfltters ... 

Paperhangers 

Plasterers 

stonecutters 

Roofers and slaters 

Structural iron workers (building). . 



Metal trades and industries 

Semi-skilled operatives 

Machinists, millwrights, tool makers 

Laborers 

Molders, founders, casters and furnace 
men 

Blacksmiths, forgemen and hammer- 
men 

Filers, grinders, buffers, polishers. . 

Tinsmiths and coppersmiths 

Boiler makers 

Pattern makers 



Furniture and woodworking industries 

Semi-skilled operators 

Laborers 

Sawyers 

Coopers 

Upholsterers 



Cigar and tobacco factories. 
Semi-skilled operatives. 



Clothing industry, dressmaking and milli- 
nery 

Dressmakers and seamstresses (not in 
factory) 

Sewers and sewing machine operators 
(factory) 

Milliners and millinery dealers. . 

Tailors and tailoresses 

Semi-skilled operatives (clothing in- 
dustries) 



Proprietary and managerial 

Manufacturers and officials 

Foremen, managers, superintendents.. 



560 
255 

240 

116 
107 
77 
03 
23 
13 
13 

2,614 
803 
449 

419 

327 

295 

136 

100 

68 

17 

1,550 

708 

594 

122 

84 

42 

1 ,091 
1 ,091 



1 ,033 
528 

233 

L29 

89 

54 

745 
422 
323 



551 

254 

240 

116 

107 

77 

63 

23 

13 

13 

2,534 
732 

448 
411 

327 

295 

136 

100 

68 

17 

1,503 

676 

584 

121 

84 

38 

141 

14 1 



36 

709 
388 
321 



80 

71 

1 

8 



17 
32 
10 



950 
950 



896 
528 

211 

126 

13 

18 

36 

34 

2 



•For full detail regarding occupations in 1910, see Thirteenth Census, Volume IV, pp. 22G-231. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 



23 



Table I — Gainfully Employed Persons in Specified Industrial and 
Occupational Classes — 1910 * — Continued 



Industrial and Occupational 

Classes 



Number of Workers — 1910 



(May, glass and stone industries 

Semi-skilled operatives 

— Laborers 

Textile industries 

Semi-skilled operatives 

Laborers 

Loom fixers 

Kood industries 

Semi-skilled operatives 

Bakers 

Millers 

Butchers and dressers 

Printing and publishing 

Compositors, linotypers and type- 
setters 

Semi-skilled operatives 

Pressmen 

Engravers 

Other and not specified manufacturing. . . 

Semi-skilled operatives 

Laborers 

Stationary engineers 

Firemen (except locomotive and fire 

department) 

Apprentices 

Electricians and electrical engineers. 
Skilled occupations, not specified ... 
Shoemakers and cobblers (not in 

factory) 

Mechanics 

Jewelers 

Glass blowers 

Mechanical engineers 

Dyers 

Trade, banking ami insurance 
Proprietary and managerial 

Retail dealers 

Insurance agents and officials 

Bankers, brokers and money lenders. 

Real estate agents and officials 

Wholesale dealers 

Not specified 

Salesmen and Saleswomen 

Clerks in store 

Commercial travelers 



482 
300 
182 

429 

376 

47 





139 

87 
34 



189 

99 
50 
35 



2,101 

oio 
558 
292 

145 
163 
95 

7 s 

70 
45 
17 
10 
8 
4 

I ,253 
1 ,513 

I .072 

174 

7.< 

72 

71 

5 1 

916 

062 

372 



399 


83 


221 


79 


178 


4 


113 


316 


76 


300 


31 


16 


6 




234 


53 


89 


50 


84 


3 


34 




27 





28 



95 


4 


26 


24 


35 








1 ,038 


163 


535 


SI 


510 


4S 


202 




145 




131 


32 


95 




78 




68 


2 


45 




17 




10 




8 




4 




3 , 000 


557 


1 .461 


52 


1 ,027 


45 


170 


4 


72 


1 


70 


•j 


71 




51 




050 


200 


444 


218 


370 


2 



*For full detail regarding occupations in 1910, see' Thirteenth Census, Volume IV, pp. 226-231. 



24 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Table I — Gainfully Employed Persons in Specified Industrial and 
Occupational Classes — 1910 * — Continued 



Industrial and Occupational 
Classes 



Number of Workers — 1910 



Trade, banking and insurance — Continued 

Delivery men 

Laborers, porters and helpers 

Newsboys 

Floorwalkers, foremen and overseers .... 

Inspectors, gaugers and samplers 

Decorators, drapers and window dressers 
Other pursuits (semi-skilled) 



Domestic and personal service 

Servants 

Launderers and laundresses (not 

laundry) 

Porters (except in stores) 

Saloonkeepers 

Laundry operatives 

Barbers, hairdressers and manicurists . 
Boarding and lodging-house keepers. . 

Bartenders 

Housekeepers and stewards 

Midwives and nurses (not trained) . . . 

Waiters 

Janitors and sextons 

Restaurant, cafe and lunch room 

keepers 

Hotel keepers and managers 

Laundry owners, officials and mana 

gers 

Other pursuits 



Transportation 

Laborers 

Drivers, teamsters and expressmen 

Switchmen, flagmen and yardmen 

Proprietors, officials, managers, fore- 
men 

Locomotive engineers 

Locomotive firemen 

Brakemen 

Conductors (Steam R. R.) 

Hostlers and stable hands 

Sailors and deck hands 

Conductors (Street R. R.) 

Motormen 

Mail carriers 

Inspectors 

Telegraph operators 

Telegraph and telephone linemen 

Chauffeurs 

Other pursuits 



359 
278 
31 
24 
22 
10 
62 

4,192 
1,565 

533 
229 
222 
211 
207 
195 
188 
175 
163 
144 
124 

52 
26 

16 

142 

2,889 
714 
624 
179 

178 

158 

145 

116 

99 

96 

92 

68 

(33 

54 

42 

42 

23 

16 

168 



359 




273 


5 


31 




20 


4 


20 


2 


10 




56 


6 


1,650 


2,542 


304 


1,261 


26 


507 


229 




220 


2 


33 


178 


187 


20 


24 


171 


186 


2 


11 


164 


37 


126 


84 


60 


112 


12 


41 


LI 


24 


2 


14 


2 


118 


24 


2 889 




714 




624 




179 




178 




158 




145 




116 




99 




96 




92 




68 




63 




54 




42 




42 




_'H 




16 




16S 





•For full detail regarding occupations in 1910, see Thirteenth Census, Volume IV, pp. 226-231. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 



25 



Table I Gainfully Employed Persons in Specified Industrial and 
Occupation Classes — 1910 * — Continued 



Industrial and Occupation a i, 

Classes 



Number of Workers — 1910 



Clerical occupations 

Clerks (except in stores) 

Bookkeepers, cashiers and accountants . . 

Stenographers and typewriters 

Agents, canvassers and collectors 

Messengers, bundle and office boys 

Professional service 

Teachers 

Attendants and helpers 

Physicians, surgeons and dentists 

Musicians and teachers of music 

Trained nurses 

Lawyers, judges and justices 

Clergymen 

Civil and mining engineers 

Writers, editors and reporters 

Photographers 

Designers, draftsmen and inventors 

Architects 

Artists and teachers of art 

Chemists, assayers and metallurgists 
Other pursuits 

Agriculture 

Laborers 

Farmers 

Gardeners, florists, fruit growers 

nursery man 

Dairy farmers 

Other pursuits 

Mining 

Coal mine operatives 

Officials, foremen and inspectors 

Other operatives 

Public service 

Guards, watchmen and door keepers . . 

Firemen (fire department) 

Officials and inspectors 

Policemen 

Laborers 

Other pursuits 



1 ,950 
686 
647 
371 
181 
65 

1,630 

425 

189 

186 

150 

117 

96 

87 

42 

37 

35 

lfi 

14 

12 

8 

216 

787 
360 
253 

92 
25 

57 

562 

522 

28 

12 

447 

115 

85 

71 
71 
63 
42 



1,299 
618 
400 

56 
168 

57 



,004 

77 

176 

176 

81 

2 

06 

87 

42 

33 

33 

16 

14 

9 

8 

154 

745 
333 
245 

85 
25 
57 

562 

522 

28 

12 

445 
115 
85 
60 
71 
63 
42 



651 

68 
247 
315 

13 

8 

626 

34 S 

13 

10 

69 

115 



3 

62 

42 

27 

8 



*For full detail regarding occupations in 1910, see Thirteenth Census, Volume IV, pp. 226-231. 

Tlie following' statement, Table II, issued by the Federal cen- 
sus office indicates the extent to which the community is engaged 
in manufacturing employments, and the growth during the five- 



26 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



year period, 1909-1914, in number of manufacturing establish- 
ments, number of persons engaged in these establishments, pri- 
mary horso power, capital, wage3 paid and value of product. 
The census covers only establishments conducted under the 
factory system, whose product for the year amounted to at 
least $500. The hand trades, the building trades and the neigh- 
borhood industries are excluded. It is explained in the census 
statement that a single "establishment" may embrace several 
mills or plants, where these are under single ownership or control. 

Table II — Statistics of Evansville^TVIaiiufactiiring^[Establishmonls 

—1911-1909 



Item 



Census Year 



1014 



1909 



Per- 
centage 
Increase — 
1999-1914* 



Number of establishments 

Persons engaged in manufactures 
Proprietors and Arm members . . . 

Salaried employees 

Wage earners (average number) . 

Primary horsepower 

Capital 

Amount paid for sin-vices 

Salaries 

Wages 

Amount paid for materials. ...... 

Value of products 

Value added by manufacture 

(value of products less cost of 
materials) 



297 

11,698 

201 

1,164 

10,333 

24,102 

•1;24,666,000 

6,617,000 

1,449,000 

5,168,000 

18,411 ,000 

31 ,427,000 



I 3, 01 0, 000 



292 

9,967 

226 

917 

8,824 

18,132 

$19,852,000 

4,901,000 

1 ,022,000 

3,879,000 

12,347,000 

22,289,000 



9,942,000 



1.7 

17.4 

-11.1 

26 9 
17.1 
32.9 
24.2 
35 
41.8 
AA . 2 
49. I 
41.0 



30 9 



*Minus sign (-) denotes decrease. 

Table I indicates with a fair degree of accuracy as regards 
number employed, the principal employments of Evansville, but 
in arriving at a final selection of industries and occupations to 
be surveyed other factors than the number of workers employed 
were taken into account by the state and local committee. It 
was recognized, for example, that large industrial groups of un- 
skilled labor, and some industries employing largely semi-skilled 
workers, did not provide suitable bases for vocational instruc- 
tion ; and that, therefore, an expenditure of any portion of the 
public money devoted to vocational survey work could not prop- 
erly be made upon these industries. 

The Survey was accordingly confined almost entirely to those 
employments which were important judged by numbers engaged 



Summari of Findings as to Industries 27 

in them and by the probability of local development in the future, 
and were at the same time of such a character as to warrant the 
school authorities in proposing them as suitable vocations for the 
community. 

Some examination was, however, made of industrial employ- 
ment in lines which were not, in the sense implied above, strictly 
vocational — on lines, that is to say, for which strictly vocational 
training could not advantageously be undertaken. In some doubt- 
ful cases, the examination was made to determine finally the 
character of the employments. Although no strictly vocational 
training can be indicated for workers in these lines, some other 
beneficial service may be rendered by the schools in the form of 
general, household arts, or recreational courses. 

It may be stated as a general principle that the occupations 
providing a suitable basis for vocational instruction in the public 
schools are those in which some system of apprenticeship training 
must be maintained as a condition of developing the highest de- 
gree of efficiency in the workers. 

Employments in which efficiency is not conditioned upon an 
apprenticeship cannot in general be classified as vocational. The 
worker acquires the maximum of skill in such an employment in 
the course of a few weeks, and no system of school training can 
constitute the emplo3 r ment a vocation, by establishing the 
competitive superiority of the vocationally trained worker in com 
peting with other workers. Commonly the workers in such employ- 
ments shil'l about from industry to industry, and from employment 
to employment. There would be no assurance that a boy or girl 
trained in the public schools for any one of these employments 
would upon graduation from the school either take up the given 
employment as a means of livelihood or, if he did, that he would 
remain permanently in it. 

It was not deemed good public policy for the public schools 
by an organized vocational course to initiate any boy or girl into 
an occupation devoid of opportunity for continuous advancement 
in after life. It was deemed essential, on the contrary, that the 
occupation proposed for strictly vocational training should be one 
which yielded a fair remuneration to the worker, one in which 
there was a fair opportunity for continuous advancement, and one 
requiring for efficiency something more than mere manual dex 
terity. 



28 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Stated conversely, the Survey was directed in the main to those 
industries in which it seemed .probable that the development of 
the industry, and the advancement of workers in the industry, 
was prevented or made difficult by a lack of knowledge or of 
training on the part of the worker; and to those industries and 
occupations in which shop training and experience were neces- 
sarily under any conditions inadequate as a means of developing 
complete efficiency. 

The scope of the Survey, as regards selection of industries, was 
determined in accordance with these general principles, and the 
investigation completed embraces, as has been noted, 23 indus- 
trial or trade groups, representing 333 establishments, in which, 
as nearly as could be determined at the time of the inquiry, 
12,764 workers were employed, of whom 8,392 were men and boys, 
and 4,372 were women and girls. The number of establishments 
and of employees in each of these industries is shown in Table III. 
Inquiry was made also regarding the opportunity and need for 
development of public school courses in agriculture. 

Table III — Number of Establishments and of Employees Covered 
by the Evansville Survey 



Industrial or Trade Group 



Number 
of Es- 
tablish- 
ments 



Number of Employees 



Total 



Males Females 



Total 

Furniture and woodworking 

Furniture industry 

Lumber mills 

Planing mills 

Tank and seat factories 

Trunk factories 

Box factory 

Casket factory 

Building trades 

Cigar factories 

Dressmaking 

Flour mills 

Garment making 

Gas engine mamifacturing 

Hospitals and nursing 

Laundries 

Machine shops and metal working 

Plow manufacturing 

Potteries 

Printing 

Railroad shop 

Retail stores 

Stove manufacturing 

Vehicle manufacturing 



333 
37 

18 



1 

1 

186 

5 

25 



12,764 

2,491 

1,801 

225 

200 

100 

75 

60 

30 

1,509 

2,100 

700 

144 

376 

595 

160 

310 

675 

245 

320 

198 

801 

827 

341 

972 



8,392 

2,457 

1,776 

225 



4,372 
34 



200 




100 




71 


4 


60 




25 


5 


1,509 




100 


2 , 000 




700 


144 




10 


366 


595 






160 




310 


649 


26 


245 




270 


50 


164 


34 


801 




210 


617 


341 





897 



7.". 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 29 

Schedule inquiries. As regards the character of the inquiries 
to be undertaken with reference to the occupations in these indus- 
tries, the scope of the Survey was defined by the schedule of 
inquiries proposed by the State Survey Committee. This schedule 
called for information upon the following characteristics of the 
occupations : 

1. Job. 

2. Sequence or lack of sequence in processes and work. 

3. Age: (a) of employees; (b) of untrained beginners. 

4. Rate of wages. 

5. What the worker does. 

6. Mental qualities of workers. 

7. General knowledge required. 

8. Special knowledge about job required. 

9. Method of selecting workers. 

10. Source of labor supply. 

11. Special training of workers, if any other than that given 
by the foreman. 

12. System of promotion or economic reward for efficiency, 
if any has been established. 

13. Systematic technical instruction or practical training de- 
sirable after the worker has entered the industry. 

14. Desirability of giving such instruction (1) in the indus- 
trial establishment, (2) in part-time day courses, (3) in evening 
classes. 

Vocational courses requested. An immediate and gratifying 
reaction upon the progress of the Survey, was in the development 
of interest among workers and employers in the proposal to insti- 
tute vocational courses in the public schools. This interest grad- 
ually materialized in a more or less definite proposal for 24 
specifically vocational courses, for many of which a provisional 
enrollment was indicated. The immediate results of the Survey in 
terms of courses proposed for approval of the State Survey Com- 
mittee are presented in the following list of such courses, a num- 
ber of which represent classes organized for regular instruction 
since the opening of the present school year. In the case of each 
industry, for which courses of instruction are proposed, the courses 
so proposed have been submitted for approval or disapproval to 
employers or others engaged in the industry, and have in each 
case been approved by them. 



30 Evansville Vocational Survei 

Immediate Results of the Evansville Vocational Survey in Terms 
of Day, Part-Time and Evening Courses 

Provisional 

A. Day Vocational Courses. enrollment 

1. A two-year day vocational course in agriculture __ 58 

2. A two-year day vocational course in machine shop 

practice 

3. A two-year day vocational course for woodworkers. . 

4. A two-year vocational course in salesmanship 

5. A two-year day elementary course for junior nurses. 

6. A three-year day preparatory course for nurses 

7. A four-year day advanced course for nurses 

B. Part-time Day Courses. 

8. A four-year part-time day course for printers' ap- 

prentices 17 

9. A four-year part-time day course for pressmen 12 

10. A four-year part-time day course for machinists' ap- 

prentices 8 

11. A four-year part-time day course for woodworkers. . 18 

12. A four-year part-time day course for cabinet makers' 

apprentices 36 

L3. A four-year part-time day course for upholsterers 

and buggy makers 14 

14. A four-year part-time day course for molders 8 

C. Evening Courses for Apprentices. 

If). A two-year part-time day course in salesmanship 36 

16. A four-year evening course for plumbers' appren- 

tices 18 

17. A four-year evening course for sheet metal workers' 

apprent ices 12 

1). Evening Courses for Journeymen. 

18. An evening course for journeymen woodworkers. ... 30 
L9. An evening course for journey men machinists HO 

20. An evening course for journeymen stationary engi- 

neers 15 

21. An evening course for joimeymen shed metal work- 

ers 15 

22. An evening course for garmenl workers in power ma 

chine operating 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 31 

23. An evening course in automobile operation and re- 

pair 

24. An evening course for men in the chemistry of laun- 

dry work 1 £ 

Trade and educational agreements. The controlling factor in 
tying up vocational education with the school is the possibility 
presented in negotiating agreements. Because of the uncertainty 
as to school affairs in Evansville, it was deemed unwise to pre- 
sent for consideration of the board the proposed educational 
agreements. 

While the Survey was in progress, conferences with several 
of the larger employing interests and with employees were held 
in an effort to secure agreements as to training and control of 
apprentices. These conferences were successful in developing 
the attitude of employers especially as regards their willingness to 
sign agreements. Seven trade and educational agreements are 
pending approval by the Evansville Board of Education. The 
form of agreement proposed for establishing part-time classes 
follows. These agreements provide that apprentices shall be 
trained for a period of from three to four years in part-time 
classes. 

The employers who have signified their willingness to act 
under these agreements are the following: 

(1) Hercules Buggy Co. 

(2) Hercules Gas Engine Co. 

(3) Furniture Manufacturing Establishment 

(4) Master Steam Fitters' Association 

(5) Sheet Metal Workers' Association 

(6) Retail Merchants 

(7) United Typotheta? and Typographical Union 

The form of agreement proposed as drawn up for the printing 
trades follows : 

Agreement Between The School Committee of The City of 
Evansville and Certain Associations in the Printing Trades 

To the end that there may be produced in the city of Evans- 
ville a higher type of workers in the trades and industries and a 
more efficient citizen ship 

There is hereby organized a course of instruct ion for appren- 
tices in printing whereby apprentices may pursue trade courses 
under proper agreements between the school committee of the 



32 Evansville Vocational Survey 

city of Evansville and such employers, or associations, ami 
apprentices or guardians, as may enter into this plan for the pro- 
motion of vocational education. 

It is mutually agreed by and between the school committee of 
the city of Evansville, in the State of Indiana, party of the first 
part; and the Evansville Typotheta?, party of the second part; 
and the Typographical Union No. 35 of Evansville, party of the 
third part, as follows : 

1. The party of the first part agrees: 

(a) To establish free day classes open to apprentices in 
the printing trade. 

(b) Classes w T ill begin in October and continue through 
the month of March next succeeding. 

(c) The courses w r ill be offered as long as an average 
attendance of not less than 15 persons is maintained. 

(d) Upon the successful completion of the course a cer- 
tificate shall be issued to the student signed by the 
proper school authorities setting forth time spent in 
the school and the kind and grade of work done. 

(e) The school committee shall cancel this agreement at 
the end of any year, if it shall appear that said party 
of the second part has not been endeavoring in 
good faith to carry out the part of the agreement to 
afford the apprentices assigned the largest possible 
opportunities for learning as a Avhole the trade or 
occupation which is represented by the work of the 
concern. 

2. The party of the second part agrees : 

(a) To place all of the apprentices now employed by 
them at the disposal of the school committee for 
instruction in the theory and practice of the printing 
trade. 

(b) To guarantee to the apprentices steady employment 
at the customary regular increase in wages during 
his term of apprenticeship, and an opportunity to 
to learn the trade as a whole under proper super- 
vision, thus assuring the apprentice the largest pos- 
sible facilities for becoming a competent workman in 
the trade carried on by said party of the second part. 
To any apprentice for all work actually performed 



Summary of Findings as to [ndustries 33 

by him for Hip establishment during his term of ap~ 
prentieeship, wages as follows: 

For the first year, at the rate of $6.00 per week. 

For the second year, al the rate of $8.00 per week. 

For the third year, at the rate of $10.00 per week. 

For the fourth year, at the rate of $13.50 per week. 
Such payments shall be made at establishments' reg- 
ular periods for payroll payments. 
(c) To see to it that each apprentice : 

(1) Faithfully obeys the rules of the employer and 
performs such work, attends such school and 
studios such lessons as may, from time to time, 
during the existence of this agreement be as- 
signed to him by his employer, or by the school 
authorities of the city of Evansville. 

(2) Devotes so many hours per week as may froin 
time to time be deemed necessary, not exceeding 
six hours each week, to study at such school and 
during such hours as may be designated. 

(3) Conforms in every respect to the rules govern- 
ing the school which they attend. 

[t is further mutually agreed: 

That practical teachers, experienced in the trades, arc to be 
in charge of all work directly related to the trades, the instruc- 
tion to be mostly technical, with enough practical work to illus- 
trate methods required in the occupation. 

That an advisory committee of six members be appointed, 
three of whom are to be employers, and three others actually 
engaged as employees. The principal of the Vocational School 
shall be a member ex-officio of the committee. 

That the school authorities aided by the advice and recom- 
mendations of the advisory committee standardize the entrance 
requirements, the equipment, the courses of study, the methods 
of instruction, the testing of pupils, while in school and further 
advise in recommendations for graduation. 

Attendance cards shall be issued to the employers, the union 
and parents of the apprentices at the end of each week. Each 
employer, the union and parent guarantees to check up the at- 
tendance cards, and if it is found that the apprentice is not, 
attending regularly they (employers, union and parents) shall 
take such disciplinary measures as are deemed expedienl to insure 

3—5543 



34 Evansville Vocational Survey 

regular attendance of apprentices thereafter. The cards to he 
signed by the employer, the union and parents, and returned 
to the director of the school with such comment as they may wish 
to make concerning apprentices' attendance and deportment, 

The attendance cards above mentioned will contain inform- 
ation furnished by the director of the school to the employers and 
parents of the apprentices on the following questions: 

1 . Is he prompt ? 

12. Is he careful with tools and machinery and of materials? 

3. Does he apply himself to job until completed? 

4. Ts he adapted to the work he is doing? 

5. Does he work well without supervision ? 

6. Does he work for results? 

7. Has he energy in going ahead and doing things? 

8. Has he ability to meet emergencies? 

9. Does he get along well with others? 

10. Is he improving? 

11. Has he any serious faults? Specify. 

12. Has he any bad habits? Specify. 
Efficiency, academic (based on school work) 
Efficiency, shop work (based on factory work) 
Explanation — 100 or over, Excellent ; 

95 Bonus Standard; 90, fair; 85 or under, 
Failure. 

New teachers and equipment required. Following is a sum- 
mary statement of the number of new teachers and of the amount 
of new equipment required for the day, part-time and evening 
courses, which are called for by the present provisional scheme 
for the development of vocational work. The necessity for imme- 
diate action in securing teachers, ordering equipment and ar- 
ranging for needed changes in building, will be apparent. The 
courses indicated and proposed for immediate organization in 
nearly every instance were suggested by employers and employed, 
and men and boys were promised an opportunity to take these 
courses when the schools open in the fall. In this statement has 
been included the cost of reorganization of the Grade and Ili^li 
School .Manual Training work. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 



35 



New Teachers Required for Vocational and Manual Training 

Work 



Course 
Day Vocational Courses — 

Agriculture 

Woodworking 

Salesmanship 

Part-time Day Course — 

Printers' Apprentices . . . 
Evening Courses — 

Plumbing 

Salesmanship 

Nursing 

Reorganized course in 

Grade Manual Training . 
Reorganized course in High 

School Manual Training 

Total 



New teachers Estimated cost 
required of teachers 



12 



21 



$1,200 
1,000 
1,000 

1,200 



1 


150 


1 


150 


1 


150 



10,000 



2,000 



$16,850 



New Machinery Needed for All Departments in Vocational Work 

Shop — Machines Cost 

Machine Shop — 

One shaper $ 535.00 

Forge Shop — 

One power hammer with motor 300.00 

One combination furnace 250.00 

Sheet Metal Shop- 
One circular shear 45.00 

Four soldering iron heaters 30.00 

Woodworking Department — 

One belt sander 245.00 

One mortiser with motor 380.00 

One 6-inch jointer for Clark H. S 66.00 

One 6-inch jointer for Clark H. S 66.00 

One motor for jointer and sander 175.00 

One small circular saw 125.00 

One motor for saw and jointer 100.00 

One circular saw for Clark H. S 125.00 



3G Evansville Vocational Survey 

One motor for Clark II. S 80.00 

Printing Department — 

Equipment for class of 15 boys 800.00 

Plumbing Deparl ment — 

Equipment for class of 15 boys 300.00 

Total $3,422.00 

Furniture and Woodworking- Industries 

Number of establishments 37 

Number of establishments surveyed 37 

Number of employees (total) 2,491 

Furniture industry 1,801 

Lumber mills 225 

Planing mills 200 

Tank and seat works 100 

Trunk factories 75 

I >ox factor 60 

Casket factory 30 

Furniture manufacturing and woodworking comprise the prin- 
cipal manufacturing interests of Evansville, and of the several 
lines of woodworking specified above, furniture manufacturing 
is pre-eminently important. The furniture factories manufacture 
a wide range of products, including kitchen cabinets, tables and 
cupboards; dining-room chairs, tables, buffets and china cabinets; 
beds, bedroom dressers and wardrobes; library tables; roller-top, 
office, school and typewriter desks, and lines of metal furniture. 
Very little furniture is made to order in single pieces, and a tend- 
ency to specialize in car-lot orders is in evidence. Other products 
of the woodworking industries are interior finish, flooring, sash, 
doors and frames; mouldings and veneers. These products are 
worked up in the mills and factories from logs brought into Evans 
ville from other Ohio river towns. In the planing mills interior 
finish is often cut by plans and specifications and turned oul ready 
to set in place. 

The Lumber nulls are somewhat l< ss prosperous than they were 
years ago, and run for short seasons only. The future develop 
men! of the furniture industry, and of industries dependent upon 
it, must he competitive, growth in the future depending largely 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 37 

upon the acquirement of precisely that technical knowledge and 
skill which cannot be generally acquired under conditions as they 
obtain in Evansville at the present time. 

There are indications that higher types, as well as better 
grades, of period furniture are to be manufactured in Evansville. 
and in terms of skill and training of workers, this presages a new 
era. 

Boys leaving school as early as the law permits enter the fur- 
niture factories as off-bearers or in other unskilled employments. 
Of every one hundred employed in the industry, twenty-five are 
between the ages of 14 and 20. In the lumber and planing mills, 
however, young workers are seldom found. 

Little or no attempt has been made in the past to train boys 
or men, except in the smaller establishments, where training is 
needed for the interchange of workers from one machine to an- 
other in order to keep an even balance in the working force. The 
Survey has revealed the fact that boys so trained remain only 
a short time in the establishments where trained. In many in- 
stances they leave to seek employment in the larger factories, or 
in the planing mills, wagon works or buggy factories, on the pre- 
tense of being competent machine operators. This drifting about 
of young workers does not promote high standards of efficiency, 
and employers have recently awakened to the fact that the labor 
turnover is becoming a very considerable cost factor in this in- 
dustry. 

The foreign-trained workers, of whom there has been a plen- 
tiful supply in the past, are rapidly disappearing, as the processes 
of the industry become more highly specialized with the advent 
of modern woodworking machinery. The supply of skilled labor 
is decreasing, and the system of shop training is inadequate. Boys 
taken on are put to a machine where they stay for indefinite periods. 

An apprenticeship system in the furniture and woodworking 
industries may be expected to decrease the labor turnover; to 
make the larger units of industry less dependent on the smaller; 
and to make the apprentices more contented, more interested in 
their own advancement, and more vitally concerned with the prob- 
lem of their training in school. 

Woodworkers have been recruited from the elementary schools, 
a large percentage of them from the fifth, sixth and seventh 
grades. In the year ending March 30, 1916, approximately 130 
boys who had not completed their elementary schooling left 



38 Evansville Vocational Survey 

school on permits to enter the furniture industry. It was found 
that workers in the factories were generally deficient in that ele- 
mentary education which is essential for efficiency. This lack of 
elementary schooling places a barrier in the path of advancement 
beyond which the woodworker cannot go. Manufacturers report 
that they have found it quite impossible in many instances to 
introduce efficiency systems, because the men in their employ have 
too little knowledge of even the rudiments of shop mathematics. 

The woodworker should know something about the several 
branches of the industries, especially those which are closely 
related to the branch in which he is employed. Knowledge of the 
lumber industry, for example, including all processes involved 
from the time the tree is cut to the time it is stacked in the lumber 
yard would provide information bearing on source of supply, 
means of transportation and methods of sawing and drying, all 
of which would be of immediate value to the furniture maker. 

These industries are pre-eminently machine industries, and the 
operation of modern woodworking machines cannot safely or with 
advantage be entrusted to boys. Physical strength as well as 
mental alertness are essential for efficient machine operation. 
Machine operators should have special instruction in the safe 
operation of their machines, and most of this instruction can be 
given by the foreman. The employment of off-bearers as machine 
operators after a few months' experience is reprehensible, owing 
to the dangerous character of the work. If these off-bearers could 
have more general instruction in cabinet making or some other 
part of the work of assembling furniture, they might come back 
to the work of the machine operator with a better understanding 
of the job. 

No system of apprenticeship in the woodworking industry is 
now in operation, but there is apparently no opposition to this 
form of training. The principal difficulty to be overcome is the 
disposition on the part of the workmen to shorten the period of 
training in order to earn a maximum wage at an early age. This 
results in a disposition on the part of the employer to avoid the 
hiring of boys, and also causes much shifting about between the 
factories. Any apprenticeship system to be successful in this 
industry must offer training in several lines of employment, and 
the apprenticeship term should he short for machine woodworkers 
and longer for cabinel making trades. Advancement in the trade 
should come after a general training involving both part-time 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 39 

instructions in the schools, and shop instruction in a broader sense 
than is now the general practice. It may bo possible to arrange 
for an agreement with the employer, specifying a school experi 
ence based on certain vocational courses. If this is possible, 
credit may be given in order to shorten the apprenticeship term. 

Any course in woodworking should embrace the three distinct 
classes of work, namely, machine work, cabinet making and car- 
pentry. The machine work course should include instruction rel- 
ative to the care and operation of the machines. The cabinet 
making course should embrace the processes involved in the gluing, 
assembling and finishing of projects. Projects in lots for com- 
mercial purposes in many cases for school use would require ;: 
repetition of processes which would have disciplinary value. Car- 
pentry involving practical operations would make necessary a 
study of formulas and standard rules in connection with this 
work. Projects of commercial value could be undertaken which 
would make the work appeal all the more to the boys who know 
that they will in their trade have to deal with the problems in- 
volved in such projects. Contracts could be made for flagmen's 
houses, garages, poultry houses and other small buildings under 
which all problems relating to the trade could be developed. 
Courses in shop mathematics taught by one familiar with shop 
problems should be provided for the workers. 

As regards these industries, vocational education may be ex- 
pected to introduce new factors of progress, by providing for 
the systematic acquirement of that knowledge and skill which 
the industry itself, without the co-operation of the schools, cannot 
provide. As a result of conferences with furniture manufacturers 
held during the progress of the Survey, tentative plans have been 
made to develop a supply of trained workers for this industry. 
The plan comprehends (1) the training of boys as cabinet makers; 
(2) the training of boys as machine operators; and (3) the train- 
ing of foremen and assistants, in design of period furniture, shop 
management and other lines. The arrangement contemplates a 
part-time scheme of training for apprentices. 

Building Trades 

Number of establishments 186 

Number of employees (total) 1,509 

Bricklaying 133 

Carpenters 609 



40 Evansville Vocational Survey 

( lemenl and concrete work :-?9 

Electrical work 4'/ 

Painting . . 306 

Paper hanging 63 

Plastering 53 

Plumbing and steamfitting 9-J 

Sheet metal work 84 

Stone cutting 25 

Structural steel and iron work . 50 

During the year 1915, 1,467 building permits were issued in 
Evansville, the number of permits issued in this year being 125 
greater than the number issued during the year preceding. The 
construction cost covered by the 1915 permits was $2,252,557, as 
compared with a construction cost for the year preceding of 
$1,209,781. The permits of 1915 thus represented a construction 
cost greater than that of 1914 by $1,042,776. 

In these two years Evansville ranked second among cities in 
the United States, in per capita construction cost of building 
under permits issued. 

The figures covering aggregate building operations in Evans- 
ville for the years 1914 and 1915 indicate that the building trades 
in this community provide a large field of employment, in which 
it seems probable the demand for labor from year to year will 
increase. 

Building construction in Evansville, until recently, required 
of the worker knowledge of building in brick and wooden struc- 
ture only, but in Evansville, as in many other communities, the 
building trades industries are undergoing a change which may 
be characterized as revolutionary. The advent of modern build- 
ing construction has created a demand for new sorts of skill in 
manipulating modern appliances and appurtenances, and for 
knowledge of new methods and materials of construction. New 
educational requirements for these trades have accordingly devel- 
oped out of the modification of practical methods in recent years 
which has been imposed by the general employment of new mate- 
rials. 

The character of buildings erected during the pasl three years 
has in fad been such as to displace workers whose knowledge of 
modern building construction was inadequate. This displacement 
of labor has affected sheet metal workers, structural iron workers. 



Summary op Findings as to Industries 



41 



plumbers, steamfitters, cement finishers, and stone and marble 
workers. 

The kind and number of establishments, number of journey- 
men and apprentices in the building trades is shown in Table IV. 

Not only has the advent of structural steel, stone, cement and 
sheet metal as building materials imposed neAV processes upon 
the building trades, but as well the employment of new material 
for interior decoration and furnishing. The men engaged in these 
trades are, in fact, under pressure to adapt themselves to entirely 
new conditions. 



Table IV — Building Trades — Number of Establishments, Journey 
men and Apprentices 



Trade 



Establish- 
ments 



Journey- 
men 



Appren- 
tices 



Total 

Bricklaying 

Carpentry. . . 

Cement work 

Electrical work 

Painting 

Paperhanging 

Plastering 

Plumbing and steamfltting . . . 

Sheet metal work 

Stone cutting 

Structural steel and iron work 



186 

8 

30 

G 

8 

77 

12 

6=1 

18 

14 



1,397 

125 

GOO 

35 

29 

300 

60 

r>G 

53 

64 

25 

50 



112 

8 

9 

4 

20 

6 

3 

2 

10 

20 



♦General contractors do their own plastering. 

As regards constancy of employment, it should be remarked 
thai no violent seasonal activity characterizes the building trades 
of Evansville, as the city is situated sufficiently to the south to 
warrant a continuation of operations during the entire year. 

Cigar Factories 

Number of establishments 5 

Number of establishments scheduled 5 

X umber of employees 2,100 

Number of occupations 12 

In Evansville the cigar industry provides employment for con- 
siderable numbers of young girls. The five factories employ in 
the aggregate about 2,000 workers. In these factories large and 
small cigars, made entirely by hand, are the only product. Prac- 



42 Evansville Vocational* Survey 

tically all of the cigar workers are native born, and have received 
their training in Evansville factories. The greater number of 
them have come directly from the Evansville schools, at an early 
age, into the factories, although a small number have come from 
other industries. 

The workers in the industry are semi-skilled or unskilled and 
the operations which they are required to perform can be learned 
in periods ranging from two to three days to six or eight weeks. 
There is, therefore, no apprenticeship system in this industry. 

Wages in the several employments are given in Table V. 

Table^V — Wages in the/Tobacco Industry 

Occupations Wages 

Bunch breaking, per hundred 20c 

Rolling, average of, per hundred 35c 

Packing, per thousand 40c 

Stemming, per pound 3%c 

Banding, per week $6 

Employment in this industry is reasonably steady, but the 
slack season extends approximately from the middle of July to 
the middle or end of October. During this season the factories 
generally run short time, retaining their employees so far as pos- 
sible on their rolls. Some of the workers seek employment in 
other lines of work during this season, but the great majority 
continue in the factories working short time. 

Operations in the tobacco industry vary little in their demands 
upon general intelligence and skill, the two exceptions to the 
general rule being rolling and packing. Since packing is largely 
a matter of color sense — which is inherent rather than acquired — 
the opportunities for promotion to this position are few, and are 
not entirely dependent upon training. The acquirement of skill 
in one line of work in this industry does not, in fact, normally 
lead to promotion to any other line. Teachers and inspectors are 
naturally selected from experienced workers, but the economic 
advancement of the workers comes with increasing skill in one 
line of work, rather than in any regular advancement to other 
lines which pay higher wages. This is necessarily the case where 
the processes are not progressive, as regards the skill required 
in performing them, but are, on the contrary, independent and 
co-ordinate. In recent years, the policy has been adopted in some 
shops of teaching beginners several processes. Except in the fac- 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 43 

tories where this policy is in force, workers tend to continue in 
that line of work in which they have acquired by experience some 
degree of facility. 

Dressmaking 

Number of employees and workers 700 

Custom dressmaking employees 130 

Pupils in dressmaking schools 400 

Alteration department employees 50 

Seamstresses 120 

Number of occupations 8 

Although it is difficult to determine -the number exactly, 
it is estimated that Evansville has approximately 700 dress- 
makers, apprentice dressmakers, seamstresses, and employees in 
alteration departments. Of these, 130 are engaged in custom dress- 
making, 400 in apprentice dressmaking, 50 in alteration depart- 
ments, and 120 in sewing in small shops or by the day in the 
home. 

The three custom dressmaking establishments produce high 
grade sewing such as tailored suits, skirts and coats ; and fancy 
waists, skirts, coats and dresses. In one establishment, a millinery 
department makes hats to order, quite often to match the costume 
made in the same establishment. 

There are four sewing schools, covered in this report, where 
people both with and without experience pay tuition and receive 
lessons in sewing and drafting. One of these makes a specialty 
of tailoring and drafting, while the others give drafting with a 
more general sewing course. 

Those engaged in sewing by the day or in the small shops con- 
cern themselves with plainer sewing for women of smaller income 
and more conservative tastes, than those who patronize the custom 
shop. 

Alteration has been classified as one branch of dressmaking 
because (1) the fitting and alteration of the ready-made dress is 
done according to the dressmaker's method, and (2) the altera- 
tion rooms are recruited very largely from dressmaking establish- 
ments. Alteration work is limited, for the most part, to such 
mechanical processes as readjusting belts and hems, and refitting 
skirts, sleeves and collars. 



44 EVANSVILLE VOCAIONAL SURVEY 

Ifoung girls, from school, or Prom different industries, enter 
the smaller establishments as errand girls or shoppers. The help- 
ers are recruited from this class, or from girls somewhat older who 
have had experience in sewing. These helpers, in turn, become 
the dressmakers in the establishments and often eventually set 
up shops of their own after they have mastered the trade. 

Many of the keepers of small shops and the day sewers are 
products of the dressmaking schools. 

Since there is considerable variation in wages paid to workers, 
even in shops of about the same class, it is difficult to determine 
any accurate scale of wages for the industry. As far as could 
be ascertained, the wages are as follows: Learners, $1 to $1.50 per 
week; helpers $1 to $4 per week; lining makers $6 to $9; skirt and 
waist drapers $6 to $10; fitters $10 to $20; stock keepers $6 to $9. 
The scale of wages is determined largely by the degree of skill 
required, and the relation of demand and supply. 

The course in sewing in the schools does not prepare the girl 
for entrance to any well paid occupation in dressmaking. If she 
enters this trade from school, she is compelled to begin in the 
lowest paid occupation and work up. The advance in wages comes 
very slowly, being 50c a season in most cases. The trade can be 
learned in the shop, but many cannot afford the time required for 
shop training. 

The proprietors of the custom dressmaking establishments say 
that it is very difficult to secure workers that are efficient and 
that inefficient help is employed and retrained because of this fact. 
Pieces are often returned to the worker to do over because of 
the "slip shod" sewing. This is a most costly procedure for the 
employer as well as for the worker. The proprietors are of the 
opinion that courses in sewing would make efficient workers for 
them, but they state that under the present conditions they cannol 
afford to co-operate in the support of the part-time school. 

Flour Mills 

Number of establishments scheduled 5 

Number of employees by schedule 144 

Number of occupations scheduled 16 

The five flour mills of Evansville employ a total of 144 men. 
Boys are not employed in this industry. These establishments are 



Summary of Findings as to Industrie! 45 

engaged in the manufacture of winter and spring wheal flour. A 
few by-products, such as bran and "middlings" are made. 

All of the workers of the mills except the grinders and hollers 
and the heads of the departments and their assistants, can be 
trained in the mill in a very short time to fill their places satis- 
factorily and the source of Labor supply for the mills is mainly 
local. Competent head millers, grinders, and bolters are, however, 
secured with greater difficulty. Nearly all of these highly skilled 
employees have had long years of experience in milling, and have 
acquired a worker's knowledge of the process of milling as it is 
now carried on which makes them very much in demand. Mills 
like to produce, and do in some cases produce their own grinders, 
bolters and millers, but frequently they are obliged to go outside 
for these men. They often obtain them from smaller mills outside 
the city. These men have a practical knowledge of milling, but 
like their new associates are deficient in understanding the theory 
of milling and in the technical and mechanical knowledge required 
by the industry. 

Flour making, contrary to popular opinion, is not a seasonal 
occupation. Much of it goes on through the year, but the slack- 
months are May, June, and January. Vacancies seldom occur in 
the better positions and opportunities for advancement are few. 
The wages of head millers, grinders and bolters are good, while the 
remaining positions pay a low wage proportionate to the skill 
and responsibility required. 

Practical training required on the part of the head miller, 
for the most part, can be acquired only in the mill, but most millers 
have had technical training abroad. 

It would appear that the schools can do very little if anything 
for these workers. The workers should, of course, have a fair 
degree of elementary education, since calculations and computations 
are frequently necessary mi the part of those employed in the flour 
mill. However, with the modern (lour mill machinery, equipped 
with automatic weighing devices even this requirement is reduced 
io a minimum. 

Garment Making 

Number of establishments scheduled b* 

Number of employees 376 

Number of occupations or processes in tin 1 industry 40 



46 Evansville Vocational Survey 

There are six garment making establishments in Evansville, 
employing approximately 376 women and girls. Four of these gar- 
ment establishments produce nothing but men's work clothes, shirts, 
overalls, and work jackets. The grade of wearing apparel 
manufactured is considered somewhat below the medium type of 
garments of these classes. 

The workers engaged in power machine operating in this indus- 
try come mostly from the city and its outlying districts. A great 
many of these workers leave school at an early age, and, therefore, 
have nothing beyond the usual Fifth grade education. Of the 376 
workers engaged in this industry 85 or 23.2% were individually 
scheduled. Ten were under 16 years of age. and the average age 
of all those scheduled was 24 years. 

Those engaged in the garment trades expressed the opinion that 
there was need for school training in the process of garment mak- 
ing — this training to be given to the girls before they enter the 
industry. Such training would, they believed, result in an increased 
output by the worker as a beginner, and in a better understanding 
of trades processes and trade products, and wider adaptability 
of the employees. 

Gas Engine Manufacturing 

Number of establishments 1 

Number of employees 595 

Number of occupations 51 

This industry is a recent acquisition to Evansville from another 
state. At no time since location here, has the one establishment in 
the industry been able to supply the demand for its product. 
The gasoline engine of the farm type, and the recent popularity 
of farm tractor requiring gasoline power lias opened up a very 
promising field for future development. Engines from l 1 •_> to 
50 horsepower, either mounted on a stationary base or on steel 
trucks or skids, are made in the Evansville establishment, and the 
firm has lately engaged in the building of tractors, which will 
require more men and an enlarged plant. 

The number of men in the different departments is as follows: 
Foundry. 235 men; machine shop and tool room, 148; inspection 
department, 37: assembling and shipping department, 03; testing 
department, 43; pattern shop, 27; draftsmen and designers, 4; 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 47 

making a total of 595 men. Of this number 36 are between 16 
and 20 years of age. 

This establishment is the best example in Evansville of a mod- 
ern industry, and of specialized production under efficient man- 
agement. This system of production demands the best machinery 
and the best organization of the working force. Competent fore- 
men are provided who are able to teach the operation of compli- 
cated machines. Other men, usually classed as tool makers, must 
make jigs and fixtures, milling cutters, and all special tools neces- 
sary in the main shop. 

Machine operators whose duty it is to place the rough forgings 
and castings in the machine and take out the finished product, 
make up a large portion of the working force. Thus, two types 
of men are required and a less number of competent machinists is 
necessary. 

The machine operator needs little technical instruction and is 
mainly concerned with the quantity of product he can turn out. 
But if he expects to become a machinist of a higher type, or a 
tool maker, it will be necessary for him to acquire a fund of informa- 
tion about machinery, bench work, and the reading of drawings. 
Some of these men are content to remain at one machine for years, 
but others are more anxious to learn the elements of the trade, 
and to become experienced machinists or tool makers. 

Hospitals and Nurses 

Number of hospitals 4 

Number of nurses 160 

Number of hospitals scheduled 4 

Number of doctors on the staffs 57 

Number of instructors in hospitals 53 

Annual number of pupils in training 76 

Information relating to Evansville nurses and hospitals was 
gathered largely in conferences with local physicians and nurses. 

It is generally conceded that the demand for nurses exceeds 
the present capacity for training and that in the past, the oppor- 
tunities have not been of such a character as to attract in sufficient 
number the best class of girls. Of the seventy-four pupils enrolled, 
only a few were, before entering upon training, residents- of Evans- 
ville. 



48 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The nurses' training schools require that applicants shall have 
a high school diploma, although two hospitals will receive in train- 
ing girls graduated from the eighth grade. Those who have the 
high school qualification progress more rapidly and are more effi- 
cient when the course is finished. The common complaint is that 
the applicants lack the foundation upon which the hospital training 
school must build. It may be noted in explanation that the Evans- 
ville public schools provide a course in hygiene (with physiology 
only in the fourth and fifth grades), while in the high school, 
physiology is an elective subject and may be omitted entirely. 

Forty-seven of the pupils now in Grades VI to XII of the 
Evansville public schools have reported that they wished to become 
nurses. The present course of study, even if taken in full, will 
scarcely give them the requisite foundation in physiology and 
hygiene and it should be borne in mind that only a small percent- 
age of the grade pupils enter the high school. 

The common deficiencies of nurses are as various in character 
as are the demands made upon them in their professional service. 
The nurse must have a foundation in professional knowledge, 
including, for example, a knowledge of dietetics, and of plain cook- 
ing and serving of foods. But other factors enter into the pro- 
fessional character of a nurse, such as, for example, good manners, 
ability to converse with patients properly, ability to keep house in 
emergency, and appreciation of the importance of cleanliness, espe- 
cially of the hands and clothing while waiting upon patients. In 
respect to many of these qualities, obviously home training is more 
important than any training which could be instituted in the public 
schools, but it is believed that the schools might aid, to a greater 
extenl than they do, in developing those personal habits and quali- 
ties which arc essential not only for good nursing, but also in general 
for right living. 

Tn certain districts of the city, nurseries mighl be established, 
which would become important factors for laboratory practice in 
homemaking, as well as in nursing. 

The need for competent nurses in many fields is obvious. In 
1915, for example, according to the report made by the Babies' 
Milk Fund Association, two visiting nurses made 8,393 visitations. 
Nine hundred babies were visited by these nurses during the year 
and the results of their work were evidenced in marked improve- 
ment in the homes and in llie care oi the babies. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 49 

It is significant of the need of more adequate instruction in the 
schools along the lines of personal hygiene that upon investigating 
the results of inspection of pupils, it was found that 162 children 
had been ordered to bathe, and 5,461 to consult their family physi- 
cians. Only 326 cards, however, were returned, showing that in 
only 326 cases had the orders been obeyed. Parents positively 
refused in 1,017 cases to have children treated and 228 parents 
reported that they were too poor to employ doctors. It may be 
remarked that there is no law under which compulsion may be 
exercised in any of these cases and in many of the most serious 
cases needing the attention of a physician, no action has been taken 
under the suggestions which have been made. Two school nurses 
made 2,918 visits in one school year, but more nurses are needed 
to visit homes where the heads of the families need professional 
advice on how to live properly, how to keep clean, how to cook, 
what kind of food to choose, and how to care for the babies and 
the sick in the home. 

Registered nurses earn from $25 to $50 per week; graduate, 
but not registered, nurses earn from $16 to $50 per week and 
under-graduate nurses, often called practical nurses, earn from 
$15 to $24.75 per week. Practical nurses, not under-graduate, 
earn from $5 to $18 per week; junior nurses, often called nurse 
"iris, earn 75c per day. Where the charge is made per visit, the 
usual charge is 50c. Nurse maids earn from $25 to $30 per month. 

Laundries 

Number of establishments 7 

Number of women employees 310 

Number of occupations or processes, approximately 



25 



In the six power laundries, approximately 310 women and girl 
workers are employed. The Survey was able to make an individual 
study of only a very small percentage of these workers, bul these 

were typical of the entire working force. 

Middle-aged women, who have had some home experience in 
laundry work, and untrained girls who have left school at an early 
age, largely constitute the working force of the laundries. Young 
women who have given any time to vocational preparation, and 
who find any more attractive fields open to them, do not enter the 
laundries. 

4—5543 



50 Evansville Vocational Survey 

All the findings of the Survey as to the laundries seems to point 
to the conclusion that it is not possible to give special training 
for laundry workers in the public school. The chances of promo- 
tion in the business above the position of the skilled piece worker 
are very few, and the wages even in the best positions do not pro- 
vide an inducement sufficient to encourage many workers to make 
any special effort outside the laundry to obtain additional knowl- 
edge about the business. 

The inexperienced beginners are usually placed at machine 
ironing, since the demands on their efficiency here are far less than 
on the hand ironers, and they may earn at this work almost $5 a 
week. In the course of two or three years, they command about $6. 

While instruction for laundry operators in the public schools 
is not feasible, it seems evident from the Survey returns that there 
are some things to be taught about laundry work which would be 
helpful both to the worker and to the business. 

The knowledge which the laundry business so much needs and 
of which the laundry worker is usually so ignorant, consists more 
especially of information as to the nature of textiles and fabrics, 
and the best way to treat them in the laundry; also the practical 
chemistry involved in the handling of waters, soaps, bleaches, stains 
and adulterations in the cloth. 

A course, including the stud}' of these subjects, should and 
could easily be given in the laundry by an instructor well versed 
in chemistry and textiles. 

Machine Shops 

Number or establishments 10 

Number or employees, approximately 135 

Number of establishments, scheduled b* 

Number of employees in establishments 115 

While the product of the general machine shops is diverse in 
character, the needs of the workers in these several shops are very 
similar. There are ten or more shops employing from one to 
five men each, which do automobile and engine repairing; two 
in which marine engines are made, employing five and seven men 
respectively; one which specializes in marine steam engine repair- 
ing, with a force of twenty-five men ; one which builds elevators, 
employing forty-six men ; and two other shops doing general repair 
work, employing seventeen and nineteen men respectively. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 



51 



In a very unusual sense of the word, most of these men are 
all-round men, with experience which can be gained only on job 
work. As may be surmised, these men are usually men of many 
years experience. They possess the ability to discover ways and 
means to accomplish difficult jobs of repair work with rather in;i<l<' 
quate facilities. Some of them are able to do foundry work, black- 
smithing or machine work on any machine at hand. Not many 
young men are employed except as helpers Nearly all of the 
employees in these shops have either been trained in their own or a 
similar shop, or have been drawn from other cities. 

The wages in these shops are as high as, or higher than wages 
in larger establishments. Employment is usually steady and the 
conditions are fair. Most of the organized labor in the machinist 
trade is found in these shops, and in them union wages prevail. 

As the demand for such work as is done in contract shops is on 
the increase, there is an increasing opportunity for younger men 
to enter these shops as apprentices. In two or more of them, an 
apprenticeship system already exists. There is good opportunity 
in such shops for bright young men to learn the machinists' trade, 
and to acquire a varied experience in various branches, and in most 
cases there is some one in charge of the shop, who is competent to 
instruct apprentices. There is not the same efficiency in production 
in these shops that may be found in the larger establishments pro- 
ducing a standard product, and the equipment of the smaller shop 
is usually old and more or less inadequate ; but the opportunity 
to learn the machinists' trade is very much better than that offered 

Table VI — Classification of Workers in Six General Machine Shops 









Number of 


Workers 






ESTAPIISHMKM 


Total 


Pat- 
tern 
shop 


Foun- 
dry 


Clean- 
ing 


Mach- 
ine 
shop 


Black- 
smith 


Erec- 
tors 


Help- 
ers 


Total 


115 

44 
18 
17 
7 
5 
24 


4 
3 


21 
9 


1 


37 

13 
4 


4 
.1 

2 


23 

6 
9 


25 


Shop 1 


10 


Shop 2 


6 


Shop 3 




6 




2 


Shop 4 




6 

4 

10 




1 


Shop 5 












1 


Shop 6 


1 


6 


1 


1 











52 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



in larger plants. Not only is there a greater variety of work 
and better opportunities for instruction, hut the younger employee 
is given mueh more freedom in the operation of machines and in 
the use of bench tools. 

The character of the work in these shops is sot forth in Table 
VI. 

In none of the shops is there any opposition to school training, 
and two of the larger shops will co-operate with the schools 
in sending young men to evening school courses, and in taking 
boys who graduate from the vocational school. 

Metal Products Shops 

Number of establishments 5 

Number of employees : 560 

The establishments which have been grouped under the head- 
ing " Metal Products' ' are relatively important, since they make 
various special products for which there is a strong demand. 
principally for consumption in the United States, but also, to a 
considerable extent, for export trade. They represent industries 
in which there is no local competition, either in the city or in the 
surrounding territory. The workers in these industries may be 
classified as shown in Table YTT. 

Table VII — Classification of Workers in Five Metal Prodnets Shops 



















w 












r. 




r be 


_ 


r. 

u 
© 




















































Shop 


Total 


— 


u 


u 

c 
o 


r r. 

;a < 


- 




o 

c 




o 


r. 

- 

"© 

X 


'8 

o 

— 


Total 


560 

220 


L35 

70 


63 
14 


n9 


150 

07 


29 


30 

2 g 


18 




71 
30 


c 


Shop 1 . 


•> 


Shop 2 


S()» 

45 

L08 


L3 

27 
2 






8 

<) 

48 


29 






25 
4 


:\ 


shop :? 


5 






Shop i 


IO 


1 I 




Shop 5 


107 


17 


7 


48 


18 






12 


5 











In all of these establishments most of the workers are secured 
from the local supply of skilled and unskilled labor. Many of 
the younger employees come from the public schools, nnd what- 
ever training in special operations they may need must be given 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 53 

in the factory, since very little use can be made of training 
received in the schools. In several of these establishments, there 
is a strong demand for more skilled workers. The greater num- 
ber of the men employed work at certain specified occupations 
common to all metal working trades. In most cases, union wages 
prevail, the employment is steady, and the conditions of labor 
are good. 

Wherever special training is needed, as in certain operations 
on special machines used, that training must be given in the 
factory. Hut the economic efficiency of most of the workers in 
all occupations in these industries could be greatly increased by ;i 
practical prevocational training course in the public schools, 
and a large proportion of the boys so trained could secure employ- 
ment in these industries. There is some hope for establishment 
of apprenticeship along certain lines. Co-operation with the 
public schools is assumed when an opportunity is given. School 
courses in machine shop practice, tool making, and other trades 
will provide a certain amount of training for occupations found 
in these establishments. 

Plow Manufacturing 

Number of establishments 4 

Number of employees 245 

Number of occupations 30 

Plow making is represented by four establishments in Evans- 
ville. They employ 131, 14, 59 and 41 men, respectively, making 
a total of 245 workers employed in the industry. Very few boys 
under sixteen years of age are employed. 

These concerns are engaged in the manufacture of walking 
and riding plows. One concern has specialized, however, to a 
large degree in the manufacture of the two and three bottom 
tractor gang plow, and another in the manufacture of improved 
riding and walking cultivators. All manufacture a line of single 
and double shovel plows. 

The plow industry recruits its workers to a large extent from 
other iron industries of the city. Many, however, come to these 
establishments as raw recruits and are trained especially for one 
operation. In view of the fact that the work does not require a 
high degree of skill, although special training in most operations 
is necessary, the latter class of workers render service equal to 



54 Evansville Vocational Survey 

that of those who have been trained in other lines of the iron 
working industries. A few of the workers are recruited directly 
from the public schools. These enter the industry as helpers 
and later are advanced to more responsible positions. 

Much of the work of the plow industry requires manipulative 
skill rather than special technical training. This, of course, can 
be obtained only in the factory itself where the special operations 
are in progress. There are, however, some men employed who 
require a general trade training, such as forge and foundry men 
and pattern makers. The school might well act in conjunction 
with the industry in training these men to the advantage of 
both employer and employee. 

Not more than eight out of each hundred employees are 
between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one. No apprenticeship 
exists. The boys obtain a knowledge by contact with the work 
and men who have learned to perform the operations skilfully. 

These concerns manufacture a staple product. The slack sea- 
son is short, coming the latter part of the summer months, and 
the workers in this industry need entertain no fear that employ- 
ment will be irregular. Much of the work is piecework, the rate 
being fixed on parts after the worker has been given a trial. This 
encourages the acquisition of efficiency and manipulative skill. 

The pattern maker, in this industry as in others, needs rather 
a high type of technical education. He should be able to read 
blueprints intelligently. Tie should understand thoroughly the 
principles of die making. The foundry work is comparatively 
simple because it is highly specialized, and does not require a 
great degree of technical skill. Forge operations require some 
skill on the part of the workers, but since the work is repeated 
in large quantities the skill may be easily acquired. A knowledge 
of the fundamental principles of forge work is, of course, neces 
sary as a condition of becoming an efficient smith. 

Potteries 

Number of establishments 2 

Number of employees 318 

Number of occupations 32 

Pottery manufacture is represented by two establishments in 
Evansville. These establishments employ a total of 320 workers. 
The sanitary pottery establishment employs 110 men, of whom 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 55 

thirty-two are classed as unskilled laborers. No one employed 
in this establishment is under twenty-one years of age. The flat ware 
pottery establishment employs a total of about two hundred ten 
workers of whom ninety-two are classed as unskilled laborers. 
About fifty women are employed in this establishment. 

One of these establishments manufactures a general line of 
toilet ware; the other, a complete line of tableware, pitchers, bowls, 
and jars. 

Skilled men who have served full apprenticeships are often 
obtained from without the city. There is considerable migration 
among pottery workers, who seem to be characterized by roving 
dispositions. Their income, it may be noticed, is sufficiently large 
to permit their moving from one pottery city to another, and 
this migration affords them some elements of variety in their 
somewhat monotonous trade. A new job equally well or per- 
haps better paid is easily secured if the individual has mastered 
his trade well. 

Many of the unskilled workers of the flat ware pottery are 
recruited from the grammar grades of the schools, as is evident 
from the fact that about sixty boys between fourteen and twenty 
years of age are employed in the unskilled occupations of the 
establishment. Many of these stay on in the establishment as 
apprentices, serving from three to five years and become, as a 
result of this training, journeymen potters. The sanitary pottery 
recruits its force entirely from other establishments. The schools 
are not drawn upon since boys are not employed. 

The wages of a skilled potter are generally higher than 
those paid to equally skilled labor in other industries, being 
approximately $35 per week. The wages in most cases are based 
upon piecework, which enables workers to earn remuneration 
in proportion to their efficiency. The workers live well and work 
eomparatively short hours, which leaves them considerable time 
for recreation. The employment is fairly steady. 

Since the work of the potter is of a very special character, 
as regards machines and processes, it would be difficult for the 
school to provide any sort of technical instruction that would 
be of practical value to the worker. Tn the way of general edu- 
cation, the occupation of the potter makes no special demand 
upon the workers, beyond that degree of general education 



56 Evansville Vocational Survey 

required for all workers to insure to them advancement in pro- 
portion as they acquire, in practice, trade and technical skill. 

Printing 

Number of establishments 11 

Number of employees: 

Total 198 

Hand compositors 00 

Monotype compositors 1 

Linotype compositors 22 

Stereotypers b' 

Proofreaders 6 

Make-up and composition men 7 

Cylinder pressmen 12 

Pressfeeders 30 

Photo-engravers 2 

Photo-engraving finishers 1 

Router 1 

Etchers 4 

Bookbinders 28 

Forwarders 10 

Finishers 8 

The printing trade is represented by eleven establishments 
employing approximately 185 men and women in the different 
occupations of the industry and 17 apprentices. 

These establishments are engaged in printing books, labels. 
advertisements, pamphlets, catalogues, blank forms, daily papers, 
periodicals, bags and wrapping paper, in the making of calendars, 
plate and photo engraving, lithographing, and bookbinding. 

Many of the workers are recruited Prom the grammar grades 
and the high school. Others are obtained from transienl jour- 
neymen printers. 

The printing trade demands a class of intelligent workers. 
and in view of this fact the wages are relatively high. A man 
who has mastered the rudiments of the work is well established 
in his trade. The short slack season, coming late in the summer, 
is looked upon as a vacation. There is in fact little fluctua- 
tion in employment in Evansville in spite of the fact that the 
trade is composed to a large extent of transient workers. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 57 

Printing requires considerable agility or manipulative skill. 
This must necessarily be acquired through a period of service 
in the shop. It is possible, too, to acquire here sufficient trade 
knowledge to become a profitable producer, but not enough for 
the greatest possible efficiency. Provisions have not been made 
for systematic instruction of either apprentices or journeymen 
and the extent to which the trade can be learned in the shop 
is limited, and is becoming more limited each year. This is 
not necessarily due to the tact that less information is available 
in the shop now or formally or that specialization has narrowed it, 
but that more and more is demanded of the printer, if he is 
to meet successfully modern requirements. Tt behooves the 
schools to rise to the situation and to assume the responsibility 
of training workers for the trade in those requirements which 
the individual must necessarily know and for which the trade 
cannot profitably give systematic instruction. Employers have 
expressed their willingness to co-operate with the schools in recti- 
fying this deficit, to the extent that they have agreed to turn over 
their apprentices to the schools for part-time day instruction. 

It has been found that printers generally are deficient in 
knowledge of English, punctuation, and spelling, and especially 
of the principles of design and color harmony. Moreover, manip- 
ulative skill is required in the different lines of work. Accuracy 
is of first importance, while initiative, a quick memory and artistic 
sense are very necessary. 

Railroad Shop 

Number of establishments 1 

Number of men employed 801 

Number of occupations 50 

From the point of view of numbers employed, prospects of 
development in the future and of wages paid, the rebuilding and 
repairing of railroad cars and locomotives is of first importance 
in Evansville. 

Some indication of the importance of the railway car building 
industry in the country as a whole may be gathered from the 
Federal Census of Manufacturers for 1914. At this census, returns 
were received from 242 establishments, which manufactured in 
1!)14, 138,178 steam and electric cars, valued at $165,071,427. 
These totals include figures for IIS railroad repair shops which 



58 EVANSVILLE VOCATIONAL SURVEY 

reported the construction of 11,049 new cars, valued at 
$12,811,187, and seven establishments engaged primarily in other 
lines of manufacture, but which produced as subsidiary products, 
4,481 railway oars valued at $3,178,677. At the preceding census, 
that for 1909, there were reported 280 establishments, which manu- 
factured 101,243 ears in the year 1909, valued at $102,147,396. 
Of these 280 establishments, 140 were railroad-repair shops, which 
constructed 14,792 cars, valued at $13,952,923; and sixteen were 
establishments engaged primarily in other industries, which built 
as subsidiary products 8,981 cars, valued at $5,934,871. The 
increase in annual output of such cars during the five-year period 
from 1909 to 1914, amounted to 36.4 per cent in number of cars 
and to 61.6 per cent in value. 

It will be apparent from these figures that the industry is 
one in which the opportunities for advancement of competent 
workers are very great, and are not restricted to Evansville 
establishments. 

Approximately 800 men find employment in this industry in 
Evansville. These workers may be classified as follows : Freight 
car repairers, 300; carpenters and woodworkers, 38; machinists, 
80 ; blacksmiths and helpers, 27 ; riveters and buckers, 54 ; boiler- 
makers, 53 : pipefitters, 5 ; tinsmiths and sheet metal workers, 13 ; 
unclassified workers, 80; laborers, 150; apprentices in machinists' 
trade, 14. 

While the industry does not at present require mechanics 
to be as highly skilled as it seems probable the demands of the 
industry in the future will require them to be, efforts are being 
made at the present time to train young men for the more impor- 
tant occupations ; namely, those of machinists, boilermakers, 
blacksmiths, pipefitters and carpenters. 

An apprentice system calling for an indenture of boys in the 
machinists' and other trades is now in operation. This system, 
though to some extent binding on the boy, has no educational 
provision. 

Retail Stores 

Number of retail stores surveyed 22 

Specialty 5 

Five and ten-cent 3 

Ready-to-wear clothing 7 

Department 7 



Summary of Findings as to Industries f>9 

Number of employees 828 

Number of departments 109 

Number of persons expected to take advantage of part- 
time day schools 36 

Number of teachers required 1 

The twenty-two retail stores selected for survey, as types of 
all retail stores of Evansville have been classified in the follow- 
ing groups: (1) Specialty stores, including in this group, stores 
carrying but one or two lines of goods, such as for example, 
music, shoes, books and stationery, or furniture ; (2) five and ten- 
cent stores; (3) ready-to-wear clothing stores; and (4) depart- 
ment stores. The conditions of employment prevailing in these 
stores have been examined and twenty distinct occupations 
analyzed. 

Of these twenty-two establishments, five depend on the smaller 
stores of the city to train their employees. Community stores 
and the five and ten-cent stores are feeders for retail stores in 
which experienced workers are required, but the public schools 
in Evansville, as in other communities contributed largely to the 
training of efficient workers in commercial establishments. The 
common branches of instruction taught in the schools, such as, 
reading, writing, spelling and arithmetic are fundamentally cssen 
tial to success in these occupations. 

Of the 814 employees in the retail stores surveyed, 597 or 
71.8' ; were 1 in the selling force and of these, 330 were in the 
department stores, 165 in the ready-to-wear clothing stores and 
102 in other stores. Of the 521 women in the specified occupa- 
tions, 456 or 73.3 % were in the selling force, and of these 260 
were in department stores, 130 in the ready-to-wear clothing 
stores, and 65 in other stores. 

During the progress of the Survey, conferences were held 
with the merchants of Evansville. The conferees freely expressed 
the opinion that something could and should be done to make 
the workers in the selling force of Evansville stores more efficient. 
Great interest was manifested in the method of meeting the 
needs of these workers through the public schools. 



GO Evansville Vocational Survey 

Stove Manufacturing 

Number of establishments 5 

Number of employees 341 

Number of occupations 10 

There are five stove manufacturing establishments employing 
a total of 341 workers, of whom 65 are classed as unskilled 
laborers. 

Each establishment is engaged in the manufacture of a gen- 
eral line of cooking and heating stoves. Several are engaged 
also in the manufacture of cast-iron and sheet iron furnaces, 
but only as a minor part of the plants' product. 

The unskilled labor is largely recruited from other industries, 
not necessarily similar to the stove industry. Men are trained 
to do the particular work assigned to them. The training 
required, however, is not considerable. No instruction or train- 
ing is given in the establishment, except that given by the super- 
intendent or other competent workman to the worker with 
reference to the particular job he is to hold. The establishments do 
not draw workers directly from the public schools to any con- 
siderable extent. Not more than fifteen of every one hundred 
journeymen are between the ages of sixteen and twenty. The 
industry is seasonal in activity, and it may be noted that the 
demand for stoves has decreased somewhat with the advent of 
modern cooking and heating appliances. 

So far as the sheet metal work is concerned, the trade in these 
establishments is closely related to the same trade in other 
industries involving sheet metal work, and workers shift easily 
from one industry to another. 

The education of the workers is generally deficient, especially 
in arithmetic; men lack ability to make the computations required 
by shop practice. 

An apprenticeship system exists which requires four years' 
shop training. No special effort, however, is made to train these 
hoys in the fundamentals of their trade. What they acquire is 
obtained through observation and practice. 

Vehicle Manufacture 

Number of establishments 1 

Number of employees 97'J 

Number of occupations scheduled L28 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 61 

The Hercules Buggy Works is the largest single manufactur- 
ing plant in the city. Outside the office force, 972 men are 
employed of whom, 247, or approximately one-fourth, are between 
16 and 20 years of age. This establishment is engaged in the 
manufacture of a complete line of buggies and carriages, com- 
mercial wagons, carts, commercial bodies for automobiles, and 
trailers for camping and delivery service. 

In most cases, the men are trained in the industry. Since the 
working conditions are good and the wages fair, little difficulty 
is experienced in attracting men from the city and surrounding- 
territory. These men are engaged at a low wage for a few 
weeks, until they can be trained for special operations which 
require skill in handling materials but not much technical instruc- 
tion. Some of these boys come from the public schools. The 
operations are so systematized that each separate process requires 
only a short time to learn. When men become proficient in one 
process, they soon reach a point where they can make good 
wages which are paid at piecework rate. By shifting to more 
intricate process or more complicated machines, these men grad- 
ually become more experienced and useful to the organization and 
are capable of earning higher wages. 

The firm usually has a slack season in mid-summer. During 
this slack season some men are at work on short hours, and 
others take a vacation or find temporary employment elsewhere. 

During the busy season, employment is quite steady, and for 
short periods, at least, the factory runs to capacity. 

In most branches of the establishment, the piece work system 
promotes the shortening of the training period, but ;it the same 
time increases the tendency to specialize in the processes of 
production. 

Since many of the operations may be learned in a few weeks. 
and even the more difficult ones in one or two years, it is safe 
to say that most of the special training needed can be given in 
the factory. Indeed, it is true that very few processes could 
l.e taught in the public schools but this in no way relieves the 
public schools from responsibility or lessens their opportunity in 
other directions. Very few of these men have sufficient common 
school training to make it possible for them to advance quickly 
in a trade requiring technical knowledge. None of them have 



62 Evans ville Vocational Survey 

a sufficient fund of information along industrial lines, and most 
of them need training in the common school branches. 

A plan which would make it possible for these boys and men 
to undertake some definite evening school instruction would 
improve their industrial opportunity, but might not immediately 
increase their efficiency at the machine, since it is and will be 
difficult to correlate school work with the daily employment of 
the worker. But for some particular branches of the industry, 
it will be possible to introduce some form of continuation school 
work in which boys are given training in industrial arithmetic, 
history, and English. 

Gardening and General Agriculture 

The spread of agricultural education throughout the United 
States has been, as is well known, very rapid, and vocational 
training is already more firmly established in agriculture than 
it is in industry. 

In Evansville there is a large field for vocational education, 
but the opportunities for developing courses in agriculture are 
in some respects exceptional. A rich farming community sur- 
rounds the city, lying within easy reach of the city schools. Many 
of the rural schools, in fact send boys and girls to the Evansville 
High School, which has, as has been noted, the only high school 
in the county. 

Agriculture in the county is undergoing a change. Stock 
raising, dairy-farming, and truck-gardening are increasing in 
importance. There, is less corn and wheat grown and more clover 
and alfalfa. More small fruits and vegetables are raised and 
marketed each year. 

After an investigation conducted by the Survey, it was found 
that fifty-eight boys in the Junior and Senior High Schools 
desire to take a course in agriculture. Most of these pupils 
now live in the city. In some instances, their parents own rural 
property. With many of the boys, their interest is due to a 
personal choice of farming as a vocation. Of these pupils, thir- 
teen will be in the eighth grade, twenty-two in the ninth grade, 
eight in the tenth grade, and thirteen in the eleventh grade. 

There is also a demand from the colored population of the 
eitj for instruction in agriculture, including vocational gardening, 
and names of prospective pupils have been handed in. 



PART III 

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AS TO 
SCHOOLS AND LIBRARIES 

Public school enrollment and population 6-20 years of age : iqto- 
1gl6. According to the school enumerations in Evansville, the 
population 6-20 years of age inclusive, i. e., population over 6 and 
under 21 years of age, increased from 18,097 in 1910 to 20,456 in 
1916, an increase for the six years of 2,359, or 13 per cent. The 
school records show that in the same period the enrollment in the 
public schools increased from 7,939 to 10,343, an increase of 2,404, 
or 30.3 per cent. These figures indicate that the proportion at- 
tending public school in the population of school age has in- 
creased. 

According to the Federal census of 1910. the population 6-20 
years of age in that year was 18,985, the deficiency of the school 
enumeration as compared with the Federal enumeration being 
888. The Federal census reported the number who had attended 
school at some time during the year 1909-1910, in the population 
6-20 years of age to be 10,628, or 56 per cent of the total popula- 
tion of this age. This number includes all those who had attended 
any kind of school, public or private, at any time from Septembei" 



Table I. — Population 6-20 Years°of Age, and Public School 
Enrollment— 1910-1916 











Increase over year pre- 






Population 




ceding 




Year 
Ending 


6-20 years 
of age 


Public 
school 






Population 


Public 




in June 


(school 


enrollment 


6-20 years 


school 






enumeration) 




of age 


enrollment 


1916... 




20,456 


10,343 


435 


653 


1915. . . 




20,021 


9,690 


122 


23 


1914. . . 




19,899 


9,667 


453 


856 


1913. . . 




19,446 


8,801 


218 


159 


1912. . . 




19,228 


8,642 


217 


269 


1911. . . 




19,011 


8,373 


914 


434 


1910. . . 




18,097 


7,939 







1, 1909, to April 15, 1910. As the public day school enrollment 
for this year was, according to the school records, 7,939, the num- 
ber attending private schools and evening schools appears to 

63 



64 Evansville Vocational Survey 

have been approximately 2,689. No accurate data are, however, 
available regarding the enrollment 1 t i private schools.* 

Table 1 gives the school age population anH the pnblie school 
enrollment for eaeli of the seven years, 1910-1916. 

Since the school enumerations do not, so far as could he dis- 
covered, return the age of children enumerated, except as being 
over 6 and under 21 years, accurate data regarding the number 
of children 6-14, or 15-16 years of age are not available for any 
year since 1910. The Thirteenth Census found 1,300 children 
6-14 years of age in Evansville, or an average of 12 in each 100 
children of this age who had not attended any kind of school, 
public or private, day or evening at any time during the year 
1909-1910, the total number of children 6-14 in the city being 
10,467. Of the 4,007 boys and girls 14-17 years of age, 2,845, 
or an average of 71 in each 100, had not attended school during 
the year. 

If it be assumed that children 6-14 years of age constituted the 
same proportion of the population 6-20 years of age in 1916 as 
in 1910, the number of such children in 1916 was approximately 
11,300. The total enrollment of all ages in the public schools in 
the year 1915-16, as has been noted, was 10,343, or between 900 
and 1,000 less than the estimated population 6-14 years of age. 
By a similar estimate the total population 6-17 years of age in 
1916 was 16,300, exceeding the public school enrollment in this 
year by nearly 6,000. The population 17 years of age may be 
estimated to be 1,500, which would leave an excess of population 
6-16 years of age over public school enrollment of all ages approx- 
imately 4,500. 

Enrollment by grades. The total enrollment in the Evansville 
schools in the year 1915-16 was distributed by grades as shown in 
Table II, in which is given also the increase or decrease by grades, 
the percentage distribution by grades and the number in each 
grade per 100 in grade I. 

Of the total enrollment 90.6 per cent were in the grammar 
grades, and 9.4 per cent were in the four grades of the high 
school. This is very nearly the proportion shown in the State 
o'f Indiana as a whole, according to the 1915 report of the Com- 
missioner of Education, which estimates that 90.4 per cent of 
the total enrollment in elementary and secondary schools in the 



The I !• i I reporl <>f tlu> Commissioner of Education estimates the enroll 
i in private schools for the year 1913-1914 al 2,000. 



Summary of Findings: Schools and Libraries 65 

Table II— Enrollment by Grades in Public Schools — 1915-1916 





Public School Enrollment: 1915-1916 


Grade 


Number 


Percentage 
distribution 


Per 100 
Grade I 


Decrease by 
grades 


Total 


10,343 

9,372 

1,705 

1,546 

1,558 

1,238 

1,190 

817 

818 

500 

971 

318 

279 

186 

188 


100.0 

90.6 

16.5 

14.9 

15.0 

12.0 

11.5 

7.9 

7.9 

4.8 

9.4 

3.1 

2.7 

1.8 

1.8 












I 


100 
91 
92 
73 
70 
48 
48 
29 




II.. . 


159 


Ill 

IV 

V 

VI 


*12 

320 

48 

373 


VII 


*1 


VIII 


318 


High School grades 

IX 




19 
16 
11 
11 


182 


X 


39 


XI 


93 


XII 


*2 







*Increase. 

year 1912-13 was in the grammar grades, the corresponding pro- 
portion in the United States as a whole being 93.3 per cent. It 
should be borne in mind, however, that the Evansville High 
School is the only high school in the county, and that a portion 
of the high school enrollment represents pupils who come in from 
the outlying districts, as graduates of grammar schools in these 
districts. 

Per 100 Evansville children enrolled in the first grade in 1915- 
1G there were 70 in Grade V, 48 in each of the two Grades VI and 
VII, and 29 in Grade VIII. 

There were enrolled this year in the fourth grade 320 fewer 
children than were in the third grade ; in the fifth grade 48 fewer 
than were in the fourth ; in the seventh grade practically the same 
number as in the sixth, and in the eighth 318 fewer than were 
in the seventh. These figures indicate that children drop out of 
school in considerable numbers on or before completing Grades 
III, IV and V, the enrollment in Grade VI being only a little over 
one-half (52.4 per cent) as great as the enrollment in Grade III. 

The decrease in enrollment by grades, in moving from the 
lower to the higher grades, comprises several factors which cannot 
be accurately determined. Net migration of families to the 
city may be assumed to affect all grades equally, since the chil- 
dren of families coming into and leaving the city are of all ages and 



66 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



grades; but the natural growth of population in the city would 
tend to increase enrollments in the lower, relatively to the higher 
grades, thus developing an apparent decrease in enrollment from 
grade to grade. Natural mortality among children, also, by deplet- 
ing enrollments in the higher grades, accounts for some small 
portion of the decrease; and retardation, by cumulating enroll- 
ments in the lower grades is an important factor. Finally, chil- 
dren leave school in large numbers, beginning with completion 
of the third grade. 

Data are not available for Evansville sufficiently detailed to 
eliminate the several factors of decrease in school enrollment 
from grade to grade, which do not represent children dropping 
out of school. It is, however, possible to eliminate partially the 
effect of population growth by comparing the enrollment in any 
grade with the enrollment in the next higher grade in the suc- 
ceeding school year. This comparison is made in Table III, in 
which the enrollment in Grade I, for example, in 1914-15 is com- 
pared with the enrollment in Grade II in 1915-16, and the decrease 
of 161 entered in the table against Grade I, similar decreases 
being entered for other years and grades. For each grade six 
promotions are covered, and the average decrease in enrollment 
for these six promotions is given in the last column of the table. 



Table III — Decrease by Grades — Enrollment in Each Grade Compared 
With Enrollment in the Next Highest Grade in the Year Follow- 
ing, Covering Six Promotions-1910-1916 





Decrease by Grades — 1909-1916 


Grade 


1 


2 


3 


4 


5 


6 


Total 


Average 


I-II 

II-III 

III-IV 

IV-V 


161 

+ 135 

+ 15 

+ 1 

171 

79 

194 

250 

+ 21 

+ 21 

116 


361 
61 
179 
131 
105 
164 
139 
342 
242 
65 
+ 68 


114 
+ 154 

15 

64 

164 

99 

178 

178 

217 

67 

27 


186 

50 

76 

63 

178 

136 

136 

87 

53 

67 

57 


257 

+ 81 

56 

64 

115 

+ 43 

140 

193 

36 

111 

3 


190 

+ 72 

35 

75 

153 

+ 51 

70 

180 
46 
34 
24 


1,269 
+331 
346 
396 
886 
384 
857 
1,240 
573 
322 
159 


211 

+ 55 
58 
66 


V-VI 


148 


VI-VII 


64 


VII-VIII. . 


143 


VIII-IX 


207 


IX-X 


95 


X-XI. 


54 


XI-XII 


26 







In Table IV the increase from year to year in the enrollment 
of each grade is shown for the years 1D10-1916. In this table 



Summary of Findings: Schools and Libraries 



67 



the enrollment in Grade I, for example, in the year 1915-16 is 
compared with the enrollment in Grade 1 in the year 1914-16, 
similar comparisons being made for other years and grades. 



Table 


IV- 


—Increase in Enrollment 


by 


Grades 


—1910-1916 




Increase in Enrollment Over Year Preceding* 




Year 






Ending 






Gram- 


High 


IN 




Grade 


mar 


School 


June 


Total 




Grades 
I-VIII 


Grades 
IX-XII 


I 


II 


III 


IV 


V 


VI 


VII 


VIII 


IX 


X 


XI 


XII 


1916 


653 


-2 


123 


335 


49 


203 


-80 


124 


-68 


60 


-13 


9 


-86 


683 


-30 


1915 


23 


-77 


139 


145 


70 


-14 


39 


-13 


68 


-99 


-5 


-29 


89 


67 


-44' 


1914. . . . 


866 


386 


70 


234 


53 


-20 


52 


29 


-44 


11 


24 


-6 


77 


760 


106 


1913 


159 


-2 


30 


-8 


-19 


38 


-8 


47 


59 


20 


-6 


47 


-39 


137 


22 


1912 


269 


-41 


123 


1 


37 


55 


43 


64 


-34 


11 


3 


15 


-8 


248 


21 


1911 


434 


190 


-18 


58 


44 


5 


51 


-22 


24 


-7 


92 


-29 


46 


332 


102 



*A minus sign denotes decrease. 



The total enrollment in the grammar grades increased by 
683 in 1916, and by 67 in 1915, while the total enrollment in 
the four grades of the high school fell off by 30 in 1916 as 
compared with 1915, and by 44 in 1915 as compared with 1914, 
giving a total decrease for the two years of 74. 

Average daily attendance. According to the commissioner's 
1914 report the enrollment in Evansville elementary schools and 
kindergartens for the year 1913-14 was 9,623, and the average 
daily attendance for a school year of 184 days, 6,537. The sec- 
ondary school enrollment as reported, was 1,045, and the average 
daily attendance, 1,378 — an average daily attendance which seems 
to indicate that a certain number of pupils attending high school 
during a portion of the year were reported as enrolled in the 
grammar grades. 

Withdrawals from grades 4 to 12. Detailed statistics relating 
to the 517 children who withdrew from school in the period of 
seven and one-half months, from September 1, 1915, to April 15, 
1916, are given in the full report of the School Survey (Part VI, 
pp. 411-416). The principal conclusions based upon these data may 
be briefly summarized as follows : 

(1) That the withdrawals from school in this period to go 
to work constituted a small proportion of the total withdrawals 



68 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Of the 286 boys, 70 withdrew to go to work, and of the 231 
girls, 20. 

(2) That retardation, although not assigned by the child as 
a reason for leaving school, largely characterized the status of 
children who withdrew. Of the boys who withdrew 59.1 per 
cent, and of the girls 51 per cent were retarded one or more 
years, the percentage retarded among withdrawals from certain 
grades being much higher. In individual cases, the amount of 
retardation ranged from 1 to 7 years. 



Table V — Children Who Withdrew From School From September 1, 
1915 to April 7, 1916, Classified as Normal Age, Accelerated, or 
Retarded. 





Children Who Withdrew From School. 




Number 


Percentage of 


Total 




Total 


Nor- 
mal age 


Accel- 
erated 


Re- 
tarded 


Age un- 
known 


Nor- 
mal age 


Accel- 
erated 


Re- 
tarded 


Total 

Fourth 


517 

78 
81 
61 
77 
95 
75 
32 
14 
4 


152 
23 
24 

7 
10 
52 
16 
11 
8 
1 


66 

12 

6 

9 

5 

20 

13 

1 


287 
43 
51 
45 
62 
22 
37 
18 
6 
3 


12 

1 

9 
2 


29.4 
29.5 
29.6 
11.5 
13.0 
54.7 
21.3 
34.4 
57.1 
25.0 


12.8 
15.4 

7.4 
14.7 

6.5 
21.1 
17.3 

3.1 


55.7 
55.1 


Fifth 


63.0 


Sixth 


73.8 


Seventh 

Eighth 

Ninth 

Tenth 


80.5 
23.2 
49.3 
56.3 


Eleventh 

Twelfth 


42.9 
75.0 



Table V summarizes the data relating to retardation for 517 
children who withdrew from school, giving for these children 
by grades, the number and the percentage who were of normal 
age, accelerated, and retarded. 

Permit-workers. Data relating to 243 boys and girls granted 
work permits between May 1, 1915, and May 1, 1916, were gath- 
ered on schedules by personal inquiry. (See Part VI, pp. 417-431). 
At the time of this inquiry 94 of the 243 cases were over 16 years 
of age, 135 were between 14 and 16, and in 14 cases, age was not 
reported. The principal conclusions to be noted as developing out 
of this inquiry are the following : 

1. The records on file in the Evansville office do not provide 
proof that the law regarding the issue of permits has been strictly 
complied with, especially as regards the issue of new permits to 
children at work, upon every change of employment. The Survey 



Summary of Findings: Schools and Libraries 69 

inquiry developed inaccuracies in the data of record in the 
school offices, as regards age and grade at time of leaving school. 
In 21 of the 243 cases the child working under a permit had 
not advanced beyond the fourth grade, although attendance at 
school is compulsory under the law until completion of the fifth 
grade. There is no reason to believe that the records are com- 
plete as regards number of children at work who have not com- 
pleted the fifth grade. 

2. In a large majority of cases the child had not advanced 
normally in his school career. Of the 243 children working under 
permits, 207, or 85.1 per cent, were retarded as regards age and 
grade at the time of leaving school. The amount of retardation 
in individual cases ranged from 1 to 8 years, the average retarda- 
tion per retarded child being 3.3 years. 

3. Occupations of fathers, in so far as reported, do not them- 
selves indicate as probable any exceptional conditions of poverty 
in the families to which permit-workers belong, and in 140 cases 
the child reported one or more brothers or sisters at work. Al- 
though the reason given for leaving school in a large majority of 
cases implied economic pressure, it is extremely improbable that 
any very definite significance attaches to the usual statement, ' ; I 
had to go to work. ' ' In many cases, undoubtedly, a more plaus- 
ible explanation of the child's leaving school is found in the 
data showing retardation. 

4. More than one-half, 91 of the 178 workers reporting occu- 
pation, had entered the woodworking industries — 55 of them as 
off-bearers in these industries. 

5. A large proportion of these workers expressed the desire 
for further school training. 

6. Unemployment at the time of the Survey inquiry was re- 
ported in 14 cases. A greater amount of unemployment would 
probably have been shown had the inquiry been made six weeks 
earlier, instead of at the time of maximum activity in the seasonal 
industries. 

7. The usual drifting from one employment to another is 
shown in the data for these workers. In the aggregate the 243 
permit-workers reported 412 jobs, three workers who had been 
out of school from 3 to 12 months reporting that they had obtained 
no job at all. It may be noted that the law does not permit a 
child under 16 to leave school until he has obtained employment, 
and further, that the law requires the issue of a permit for each 



70 Evansville Vocational Survey 

job for children under 16. The 243 permit records in the school 
office does not seem sufficient to cover the 412 jobs reported by 
these workers. 

Manual training work in the public schools. Data regarding 
the manual training courses in the schools are summarized in Chart 
I, which shows for these courses entrance requirements, time 
required to complete the course, number of students and of 
instructors, and other characteristics of these courses. 

As regards manual training work, the present situation in 
the grade schools is the result of a compromise. In the year 1914, 
when the manual training work was initiated, the authorities 
insisted that it should be done in the fifth, sixth and seventh 
grades. It was proposed to hire only two teachers for 1,100 boys, 
and this was done. Some of the grade principals, however, ob- 
jected to even this amount of work, arguing that the school pro- 
gram was disturbed. Other principals have not been willing to 
keep the grades separate in the classes, and have put beginners 
into the same section with experienced boys. 

Some of the classes have been cut to thirty minutes per week, 
and in no class in Grades V to VII has the time devoted to the sub- 
ject exceeded 45 minutes per week. 

Under these conditions, success obviously was impossible. 
The addition subsequently to the initiation of the courses of one 
more teacher for half time work did not materially improve con- 
ditions. At the present time each teacher has about 500 boys, 
and when the boys go to their manual training classes, the f everish 
anxiety on their part to make something in the short space of 
time allowed, seriously interferes with the maintenance of that 
discipline which is essential to give educational value to the work. 
Under the circumstances, it is clear that such courses cannot be 
continued with profit. 

Manual training work is prescribed in Grades V to VIII, and 
is elective in Grade IX to XII. Grade IX work is prescribed for 
high school graduation, but may be taken at any time during the 
high school course. The high school manual training course 
includes Grades VIII to XII. Two years of this course — Grades 
VIII and IX— being required, and three years — Grades X-XIII — 
elective. In Grade VIII, three periods a week of 40 minutes each 
are devoted to woodwork, and two periods to drawing; and in 
grades IX-XII, five periods of HO minutes are spent in the shops, 



Summary of Findings: Schools and Libraries 71 

and drafting rooms, time being about equally divided between 
drafting and manual work. 

The equipment for this work, in some lines, is fairly adequate, 
although it has not been evenly distributed to the several schools 
and shops, and in some cases the size of classes has necessarily 
been reduced owing to the limited accomodations of the equip- 
ment available. 

The experience of the whole country is in favor of industrial 
work in the upper grades, but in Evansville some agreement must 
be reached between the school authorities and the advocates of 
manual training which will permit boys to have a reasonable 
amount of time for their shop work. 

In general the situation with reference to the manual training 
work in the Evansville schools may be summarized in the state- 
ment that the amount of manual training work should be gener- 
ally increased, especially in Grades VI, VII, VIII and IX— not pri- 
marily in the interests of vocational education, but rather in the 
interests of general education, and in view of the general educa- 
tional value of manual training. It is believed that an increase 
in the amount of such work, involving an increase in the number 
of instructors, as well as in the time devoted to manual training 
in the several grades, is essential, if manual training is to have 
any very material effect upon the child's development. 

The present apportionment of time is unfair to the manual 
training teacher, and to the child. This sort of training may 
properly occupy as considerable a place in the curriculum of 
the several grades as any other single subject such as, for example, 
mathematics, or spelling, or English composition. It is, of course, 
obvious that this manual training has a special value in conjunc- 
tion with vocational work. Vocational work is, however, clearly 
differentiated from manual training work, not only by its voca- 
tional character, but also by the fact that vocational work is 
only partially manual. The vocational training of the machinist, 
for example, includes instruction in higher mathematics, and 
other vocational instruction necessarily includes much training 
that is not in any sense manual. 

Specifically, it would seem desirable that the manual training 
work of the seventh, eighth and ninth grades be reorganized 
in accordance with the following provisions : 

(a) That the work be required of all children in these grades. 



72 Evansville Vocational Survey 

(b) That the periods be five single periods per week in the 

seventh and eighth grades, and five double periods 
in the ninth grade. 

(c) That the work be made more generally informational 

than it is at present. 

A greater variety of materials and processes should be ex- 
ploited, and the boys and girls in these courses, as well as those 
in vocational courses, should study the industrial life of the city 
by shop visits, and by work in the proposed museum of industry 
and commerce and by class discussions. In this amplification of 
manual training work, co-operation with the vocational depart- 
ment would seem to be a natural method of procedure. 

The aim of the manual training work will not be changed by 
the introduction of vocational courses. Nor is it likely that 
manual training will become in any degree less popular with the 
introduction of such courses. On the contrary the indications 
are that there will be in the future a greater rather than a smaller 
number of registrations for manual training from the group of 
boys who expect to complete a high school course. 

It is generally admitted that throughout the whole period of 
school life, some form of hand work, industrial arts or manual 
training should be offered to all pupils. It is considered a neces- 
sary part of general education and valuable to every pupil, what- 
ever his or her vocational prospects or natural inclination may be. 
To permit a boy or girl to omit entirely work with his hands is 
to cheat that pupil out of a natural right to an experience which 
he or she must obtain sooner or later. Practically all courses of 
study for primary, intermediate and grammar grades should 
provide for systematic supervised work with the hands. In 
Evansville this work has been somewhat disorganized, owing to 
the general lack of supervision, correlation and agreement as to 
the amount of time which could be spared from other work. 

Re-organization of work already offered, placing it under 
proper supervision and adjusting the time so that each pupil may 
have a minimum, at least, of hand work would remedy some of 
the deficiencies. If any work is offered in the fifth grade, in 
free hand or mechanical drawing, shop work, or sewing, two 
class periods a week is certainly not an unreasonable time allow- 
ance. Compared with the time spent on any other subject, this 
is barely one-fourth of that usually given. To arrange the school 
program for Hiis time allowance is merely ;i matter of co-operation. 



Summary of Findings: Schools and Libraries 73 

If a comparison with other cities is of importance, the 
statistics obtained from thirty-one cities show that the average 
time for all those cities is practically that specified. Such repre- 
sentative cities as St. Paul, Minn.; Columbus, Ohio; Newark, N. 
J. ; Grand Rapids, Mich., and Madison, Wis., devote approximately 
this amount of time to these subjects and the criticism most fre- 
quently made is that this time allowance is insufficient. 

When we come to the seventh grade, there should be no ques- 
tion whatever that manual training should have at least one 
period in each school day. The success of the Junior High School 
plan depends upon it. The needs of the industries, and the de- 
mands on the part of the boys and girls for some purposeful 
training are such that they must not be disregarded. 

Household arts work in the public schools. Household arts 
work, also, is prescribed in Grades V to VIII and elective in 
Grades IX to XII, Grades VIII to XII constituting the high 
school arts course. Grade IX work is prescribed for high school 
graduation, but need not be taken by those who do not graduate 
and do not elect household arts as a major subject. 

The usual subjects are taught in these courses, including cook- 
ing, food study, dietetics, laundering, sanitation, house planning 
and decoration, meal serving, marketing, sewing, dressmaking 
and millinery. 

In the lower grades one period a week of from 30 to 60 minutes 
is devoted to this work; in Grade VIII three periods of 40 minutes 
are devoted to sewing, and two to design. In Grades IX to XII 
classes meet five times a week for double periods of 80 minutes 
each. 

Statistical and descriptive data relating to this Avork are 
summarized in Chart I. 

Day and evening vocational worJi in tht public schools. General 
data relative to the day and evening vocational work of the public 
schools are presented in Chart II. 

The vocational work undertaken by the day schools has been 
confined to the high school commercial course, and the teachers' 
training course. The evening vocational school has given eight 
courses for men — including a course for machinists, one in me- 
chanical and architectural drawing, in sheet metal drafting, in 
electrical work, in furniture designing, in cabinet making, in 
power plant operating, and in automobile operation; and seven 
courses for women — millinery, dressmaking, elementary sewing, 



74 Evansville Vocational Survey 

art needlework, cooking, meal planning, and household manage- 
ment. The high school commercial course covering the usual 
commercial subjects as shown in Chart II, had an enrollment of 
589 students, and the teachers' training course an enrollment of 
47 pupils. 

The evening vocational work has not been sufficiently devel- 
oped. In some classes the enrollment has exceeded the capacity 
of the schools, and the classes organized have not generally held 
their enrollment for the series of sessions announced. 

The details regarding enrollment, attendance, and occupations 
of the men and women enrolled in these courses is given in Tables 
VI and VII. These tables show that of the 63 men admitted to 
the two machinists' courses, for example, each running for 62 
sessions, 18 attended not over 5 sessions, and only 12 attended 
more than 20 sessions. In this course only 4 attended more than 
40 sessions. In the two mechanical and architectural drawing 
courses, running for the same number of sessions, 24 were enrolled, 
and only 6 attended more than 20 sessions; in the course 
in furniture design, running for 53 sessions, 41 enrolled and 
only 6 attended more than 20 sessions; of the total enroll- 
ment of 270 in the seven courses for men, 77 attended not 
over 5 sessions in the course in which they were enrolled, 71 
attended 6 to 10 sessions only, and 122 attended more than 10 
sessions. In the four classes in millinery, each planned to run 49 
sessions, with a total enrollment of 168, none of those who en- 
rolled attended more than 20 sessions; of the 196 enrolled for 
40 sessions in cooking, only 2 attended more than 20 sessions. 
It will be obvious that with such mortality no very effective 
vocational training or instruction can have been given to the 
great majority who enrolled in these courses. 

Prevocational instruction. Practically no distinctly prevoca- 
tional work has been given in the Evansville public schools. 
It is, however, proposed to institute such work in the fifth grade, 
and to continue it through the sixth and seventh grades. The 
proposed scheme will require additional teachers for this work, 
although to a certain extent the proposed prevocational work is 
to take the place of some manual training and practical arts 
work given in the past. At the time of the Survey it was be- 
lieved that the establishment of a Junior High School would 
facilitate the introduction of a more intensive course of prevo- 
cational work in the seventh and eighth grades, and that such 



Summary of Findings: Schools and Libraries 75 

a modification of the curriculum would hold a large proportion 
of the lower grade pupils in school at least through the seventh 
grade. It was proposed to make this work preparatory to the 
day vocational courses in the high school. 

Private school vocational instruction. In Chart III general 
statistics and descriptive data are summarized for the vocational 
instruction undertaken by the Young Men's Christian Associa- 
tion, by two business schools, and by two dressmaking schools. 
The total annual enrollment in the courses given by these agencies 
exceeds 1,000, the numbers returned to the Survey being, for 
the Y. M. C. A. courses 365 ; for the two business schools 620 ; and 
for the one dressmaking school reporting enrollment 200. 

The Y. M. C. A. scheduled about 30 courses, and offered those 
for which there was greatest demand. The courses having voca- 
tional value are listed on the accompanying chart. 

One of the two business schools or colleges charted was estab- 
lished in 1850 and the other about 20 years ago. These schools 
teach bookkeeping, shorthand, typewriting and business methods. 

The private dressmaking schools are conducted by practical 
dressmakers, who combine school instruction with commercial 
work. A large proportion of the students enroll in order to learn 
dressmaking for their own personal use, although many graduates 
find wage-earning employment or set up shops of their own. 

Nurses' training schools. General data relative to nurses train- 
ing schools are summarized in Chart IV. Four Evansville hos- 
pitals maintain such schools, each giving a three years training 
course for nurses. Pupils in training in these schools earn from 
$5 to $10 a month, and upon graduation are candidates for the 
state examination for registered nurses. The enrollment in these 
schools at the time of the Survey totaled 76. 

Receipts and expenditures for schools and libraries. The total 
revenue of the Evansville corporation and school city combined, 
according to the 1915 report of Statistics of Cities issued by the 
Bureau of the Census amounted for the calendar year 1914 to 
$1,219,342. Of this amount, $405,818, or approximately one-third, 
represented receipts of the school city. The chief sources of 
revenue for the school city are general property taxes, which 
yielded $259,837, or 64 per cent of the total school revenue, and 
subventions, and grants — including grants from the state and 
county — amounting to $132,216, or 32.6 per cent of the total 



76 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Table VI — Men's Public School Evening Vocational Courses, Statis- 
tics by Courses — 1915-1916 





Evening Vocational Courses Fob Men 


Attendance 

AND 

Occupation 


Total 


Auto- 
mobile 
Opera- 
tion 


Cabi- 
net 

Mak- 
ing 


Draw- 
ing 

Mech. 
Arch. 


Elec- 
tric- 
al 
work 


Fur- 
ni- 
ture 
de- 
sign 


Ma- 
chin- 
ists. 


Power 
plant 
opera- 
tion 


Sheet 
metal 
draft- 
ing 


Enrollment 

Number of ses- 
sions 


*270 


40 
33 

10 

20 

6 

4 
1 

26.3 

7 
8 
4 


21 

62 

4 
3 

6 

8 

1 

23 


24 
62 

4 

4 

10 

6 
2 

30 


21 
49 

10 
4 
4 

3 

1 

20.5 


41 
53 

20 

10 

5 

6 
1 

27.9 


63 

62 

18 
14 
19 

12 
2 

23.3 


35 

29 

7 
12 
12 

4 

1 

36.7 


25 

62 


Number attending 
Not over 5 ses- 
sions 

6-10 sessions.. . . 
11-20 sessions.. . 
More than 20 

sessions 

Number of classes. 

Average Age .... 

Occupation 

Auto, chauffeur 


77 
71 
64 

58 
11 

26.3 

7 
8 
4 
1 
3 

3 

2 
5 

1 
12 

29 
5 

60 
3 
1 

1 

1 

10 

66 

1 

1 
3 

21 
3 

5 

5 i 


4 
4 
2 

15 
2 

22.8 


















Baker. . . 


























1 






Boiler maker 














3 


Brewery man 

Bricklayer 

Carpenter 

Clerk.. . 


3 


















2 
5 




























1 












Electrician 




12 










Engineer. . . 












29 

5 




Fireman 




















17 


2 




41 






Garage man. . 


3 






Grocer . 


1 














Inspector 




1 

1 


























Machine operator. 










10 

48 






Machinist. . . 


5 




12 






1 




Moving picture. . . 
Pattern maker 


1 














i 






Printer. . . 


2 




1 










Sheet metal work- 
er 










21 


Teacher. 


5 


2 












1 


Teamster 




















5 
3 










Unemployed 


5 


1 














*Different individuals. There were no double enrollments. 



Summary of Findings: Schools and Libraries 



77 



Table VII — Women's Public School Evening Vocational Courses — 
Statistics by Courses— 1915-1916 







Evening Vocational 


Courses 


for Women 




Attendance and 
Occupation 


Total 


Art 
needle 
work 


Cook- 
ing 


Dress- 
making 


House- 
hold 

man- 
age- 
ment 


Meal 
plan- 
ning 


Mil- 
lin- 
ery 


Sew- 
ing, 

ele- 
men- 
tary 




*719 


34 

22 

18 
16 


196 
40 

45 

80 
69 

2 

10 


177 
60 

26 
42 
70 

39 

7 

1 
7 


42 
9 

32 
10 


15 
9 

9 
6 


168 
49 

45 

84 
39 


87 




60 


Number attending — 
Not over 5 sessions 
6-10 sessions 




14 
14 






31 


More than 20 ses- 










28 


Number of classes. . . . 
Occupation 


29 


2 


1 


1 


4 


4 






4 


8 
2 

5 

9 






4 


3 












Chocolate dipper 




2 


1 
18 

6 

1 

3 

95 

8 






2 
2 

13 

72 
11 

1 












20 


Clerk 




3 






















1 
5 
2 


4 
34 
13 

2 
2 
1 
3 






2 






14 




9 






7 
































1 
2 






































Nurse, city 














2 










2 
33 


1 
1 
4 






4 


Stenographer 




2 






7 
4 
2 

2 
1 


7 












Student, sewing 














Teacher 




8 


3 




3 






Telegrapher 












2 
5 

67 
















1 

26 








1 


Unemployed and no 
report 




7 


25 


15 


L 


34 



*Represents 480 individuals, some of whom enrolled in more than one course. 



78 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



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fl -3 



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p <b t« o .2 » •? 2 



s 

I— I f-> 

Pi 

CO 

2 * § 



E bo 
W 



Summary of Findings: Schools and Libraries 



87 



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88 Evansville Vocational Survey 

school revenue. The receipts and sources of revenue as given 
in the Report of the Census Bureau are shown in Table VIII. 



Table VIII — Receipts of the Evansville Corporation and School City 
for the Calendar Year, 1914 





Receipts 


Source 


Total 


City 
Corporation 


School City 




Amount 


Percentage 




Total 

Taxes 

General property 

Poll 


$1,219,342 

826,844 

712,553 

4,364 

98,098 

11,829 

12,801 

2,890 

135,216 

237 

1,508 

11,113 

25,645 

85 

7,812 

195,191 


100.0 

67. 8 

58.4 

.4 

8.0 

1.0 

1.1 
.3 

11.0 

* 

.1 

.9 

2.1 

* 

.7 
16.0 


$813,524 

565,207 

452,716 

2,564 

98,098 

1 1 ,829 

12,801 
2,890 


$405,818 

261 ,637 

259,837 

1,800 


Non-business license . 

Special assessments and 
charges 






Subventions and grants 

Donations and gifts 


135,216 


237 

1,508 

3,373 

25.645 

85 

6,587 

195,191 






Departmental earnings 


7,740 








1,225 


Public Service enterprises . . . 







*Less than one-tenth of one per cent. 

Table IX, also based upon Census Bureau data, classifies the 
expenditures of the Evansville corporation and school city during 
the year ending December 31, 1914, by departments. In this year 
the expenditure for schools amounted to $316,981, or 28.5 per 
cent of the total expenditure of $1,116,475 for all purposes. The 
expenditure for libraries amounted to $9,806. 

Expenditures for elementary and for secondary schools during 
the school year 1914 are itemized in Table X, as given in the 1915 
report of the Commissioner of Education. It will be noted that 
the total of expenses for school purposes, as given on Table IX 
preceding, is for the fiscal year ending December 31, 1914, while 
the total given in Table X is for the school year ending in the 
summer of 1914. 

Per capita expenditure for schools and libraries. In Evans- 
ville the per capita expenditure for schools in 1914 amounted 



Summary of Findings: Schools and Libraries 89 

Table IX — Expenditures of Evansville for the Calendar Year, 1914 



Department 



Total 

Education — 

Schools 

Libraries 

General government 

Police department 

Fire department 

Conservation of health 

Sanitation 

Highways 

Charities, hospitals and corrections 

Recreation 

Public service enterprises 

Interest 

Outlays 

Allother 



Expenditures: 1914 



Amount 



$1,116,475 



316,981 

9,806 

45,203 

93,229 

101,267 
17,584 
40,441 
62,988 
6,680 
16,948 

117,965 
69,432 

200,345 
17,596 



Percentage 



100.0 



28.5 
.8 
4.0 
8.3 
9.1 
1.6 
3.6 
5.6 
.6 
1.5 

10.6 
6.3 

18.0 
1.5 



to $4.45. In the group of 60 cities in the United States having 
a population of 50,000 to 100,000 inhabitants, Evansville ranked 
thirty-fifth, the per capita expenditure for cities in this group 
ranging from $8.26 in Berkeley, California, to $1.99 in Mobile, 
Alabama. In Berkeley, 53.5 per cent of the total expenditure was 
for schools, as compared with 43.6 per cent in Evansville. In 14 
cities of this group the expenditure for schools constituted more 
than 43.6 per cent of total expenditures and in 45 cities less than 
that proportion. In 32 of the 60 cities the per capita expenditure 
for libraries exceeded 14 cents, the expenditure in Evansville, and 
in 44 cities it was less than 14 cents. In 48 of the 60 cities the 
total per capita expenditure for all purposes exceeded Evans- 
ville 's per capita expenditure of $10.22. The census data for 
these cities, showing total and per capita expenditure for schools, 
libraries and for all purposes combined, is given in Table XI. 
It appears that Evansville 's per capita expenditure for schools, 
as for all purposes, is rather below the average for cities in this 
group. 

Per capita expenditure for ieacliers' salaries. In some respects 
the per capita expenditure for teachers' salaries in the several 
cities is a more satisfactory basis of comparison than total expen- 
ditures for school purposes, since total expenditures include dif- 



90 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Table X — Expenditures of Evansville for School Purposes, not include 
ing Outlays for New Buildings and Equipment — 1913-1914 





Expenditure — 1913-1914 


Item 


Total 


Elementary 
schools 


Secondary 
schools 


Total 


$322,621 

2,815 
6,281 

9,200 

18,090 

215,547 

1,067 

5,559 

27,909 
8,112 
2,570 

13,403 

12,068 


$238,058 


$75,467 


Board of Education and business of- 










Salaries and expenses: 


9,200 

15,032 

157,861 

750 

4,413 

20,909 
4,614 
2,139 

11,072 

12,068 






3,058 




57,686 




317 




1 ,146 


Wages of janitors and other employ- 


7,000 


Fuel. . 


3,498 


Water, light, power, etc 


431 


Maintenance and repairs 


2,331 


Payments to other schools, pensions, 









ferent miscellaneous items in different cities, while expenditures 
for salaries are more nearly homogeneous from city to city. Table 
XII, given for cities of 50,000 to 100,000 population for which 
comparable data are available, the expenditure for teachers' 
salaries per capita of population 6-20 years of age, and per capita 
of children enrolled in the public day schools. In these cities 
the expenditure for teachers' salaries per capita of population 
6-20 years of age ranged from $20.50 in Butte, Mont., to $4.99 in 
Charlotte, N. C, the expenditure in Evansville being $10.85. Per 
child enrolled in the public schools the per capita salary expen- 
diture in Evansville was $20.20, the range for these cities being 
from $32.30 in Butte to $8.44 in Charlotte. 

Library volumes, borrowers and circulation. On June 1, 191 6, 
the Evansville Public Library contained 28,631 volumes, distrib- 
uted to its several branches, reading rooms, school deposit sta- 
tions, class room libraries and industrial stations. In the period 
of three years and five months, from January 1, 1913, to June 1, 
1916, the number of borrowers registered was 15,361, of whom 
14,244 were white and 1,117 were colored. Borrowers classified 
as children under 16 years of age numbered 9,427, of whom 8,734 



Summary of Findings: Schools and Libraries 



91 



were white and 693 colored; students over 16 years of age in 
public, parochial or business schools numbered 480, of whom 
440 were white and 40 colored. Other classes of borrowers were 
women at home, women at work, teachers, business men, pro- 
fessional persons and children at work. Nearly two-thirds of 
the borrowers were under 16 years of age. In the period specified 
the circulation of volumes amounted to 472,561 issues or borrow- 
ings, of which 274,415 were credited to juvenile books, and 198,146 



Table XI — Amount and Per Capita Expenditures for Schools, Librar- 
ies and All Purposes by Cities Having a Population of 50,000 to 
100,000—1914 





City 


Expenditures 
for schools 


Expendi- 
tures for 
libraries 


Total 
expenditures 
for all purposes 


a© 


Per 
capita 

$ 


Amount 

$ 


Per cent 
of total 
expen- 
ditures 


Per 

cap- 
ita 

$ 


Amount 

$ 


Per 
cap- 
ita 


Amount 


l 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 

26 

27 

28 


Berkeley, Cal 

Des Moines, Iowa. . . . 

Yonkers, N. Y 

Bayonne, N. J 

Atlantic City, N.J. . . 

Sacramento, Cal 

Hoboken, N. J 

Sioux City, Iowa 

Akron, Ohio 

Brockton, Mass 

Peoria, 111 

Somerville, Mass 

Duluth, Minn 

Passaic, N. J 

Holyoke, Mass 

Saginaw, Mich 

Waterbury, Conn. . . . 
Terre Haute, Ind .... 

Rockford, 111 

Utica, N. Y 

Harrisburg, Pa 

Springfield, 111 

Troy, N. Y 

Schenectady, N. Y. . . 

Portland, Me 

Kansas City, Kans. . . 
New Britain, Conn. . . 
Pawtucket, R. I 


8.26 
7.62 
7.28 
7.19 
7.15 
7.10 
6.54 
6.46 
6.37 
5.88 
5.76 
5.59 
5.40 
5.29 
5.25 
5.24 
5.20 
5.11 
5.05 
5.04 
4.99 
4.99 
4.96 
4.94 
4.91 
4.83 
4.81 
4.70 


441,782 
741,911 
680,228 
474,792 
385,942 
445,617 
493,106 
351,861 
511,362 
375,599 
403,424 
468,642 
482,383 
357,878 
329,441 
284,864 
429,303 
324,437 
264,306 
413,470 
346,671 
290,524 
384,462 
449,259 
305,466 
455,324 
245,127 
267,182 


53.5 
41.8 
30.8 
50.4 
27.5 
36.1 
41.5 
49.4 
47.4 
36.1 
39.1 
34.3 
38.9 
50.7 
32.1 
43.3 
38.5 
44.3 
43.8 
36.0 
40.1 
42.3 
29.5 
35.7 
27.4 
45.7 
41.2 
32 3 


.36 
.28 
.14 
.20 
.26 
.29 
.24 
.37 
.07 
.38 
.12 
.54 
.20 
.20 
.24 
.10 
.32 
.15 
.32 
.32 
.04 
.23 
.08 
.13 
.21 
.11 
.25 
.32 


19,422 
27,117 
12,693 
13,449 
13,800 
18,043 
18,313 
20,301 

5,792 
24,556 

8,562 
45,617 
17,745 
13,741 
15 ,000 

5,424 
26,206 

9,772 
16,750 
26,103 

3,000 
13,260 

6,500 
12,000 
13,016 
10,355 
12,500 
18,535 


15.43 
15.78 
23.63 
14.25 
26.02 
19.65 
15.75 
13.01 
13.42 
16.28 
14.74 
16.25 
13.90 
10.43 
16.36 
12.08 
13.54 
11.51 
11.53 
14.03 
12.44 
11.84 
17.24 
13.81 
17.91 
10.56 
11.65 
14.52 


825,325 

1,535,251 

2,206,695 

940,829 

1,403,819 

1,232,442 

1,186,983 

708,923 

1,077,491 

1,038,777 

1,032,005 

1,363,123 

1 ,241,444 

705,726 

1,026,937 

657,248 

1 ,117,004 

731,223 

603,527 

1 ,151 ,365 

864 , 198 

689,488 

1,337,194 

1,256,601 

1 ,113,149 

995,405 

594,470 

826,362 



92 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Table XI — Amount and Per Capita Expenditure for Schools, Librar- 
ies and All Purposes by Cities Having a Population of 50,000 to 

100,000— 1914— Continued 



£"} 




Expenditures 


Expendi- 


Total 


rf d 




for schools 


tures for 


expenditures 


c3 "> 


City 






libraries 


for all purposes 


O 1 " 
















ft© 

(-1 

§! 

tfft 




Per 
capita 


Amount 


Per cent 
of total 
expen- 
ditures 


Per 

cap- 
ita 


Amount 


Per 

cap- 
ita 


Amount 






$ 


$ 




$ 


$ 


$ 


$ 


29 


Canton, Ohio 


4.68 


268,497 


48.1 


.10 


5,576 


9.72 


558,045 


30 


Altoona, Pa 

South Bend, Ind 


4.65 
4.57 


262,800 
297,699 


51.9 
45.3 






8.94 
9.40 


505 ,848 


31 


.14 


92,420 


612,023 


32 


St. Joseph, Mo 


4.52 


375,530 


41.2 


.21 


17,439 


10.96 


911,430 


33 


Pueblo, Col 


4.49 


230,216 


39.7 


.11 


5,613 


11.45 


586,701 


34 


Lynn, Mass 


4.49 


440,896 


30.0 


24 


23,492 


14.95 


1,468,693 


35 


Evansville, Ind 


4.45 


316,981 


43.6 


.14 


9,806 


10.22 


728,733 


36 


Springfield, Ohio 


4.39 


219,641 


40.0 


.10 


5,002 


10.91 


546,331 


37 


Wichita, Kans 

Johnstown, Pa 

Erie, Pa 


4.34 
4.25 
4.24 
4.22 
4.21 


281,934 
274,885 
306,987 
311,203 
305,242 


47.8 
47.1 
38.8 
39.0 
39.8 






9.06 

9.02 

10.92 

10.71 

10.58 


588,795 


38 






582,890 


39 


.19 


13,784 


790,558 


40 


Wilkesbarre, Pa 

Ft. Wayne, Ind 


789,244 


41 


.21 


14,982 


766,095 


42 


El Paso, Texas 


4.16 


208,613 


30.1 


.11 


5,369 


13.83 


693 ,087 


43 


Lawrence, Mass 


4.13 


395,971 


30.7 


.24 


22,615 


13.43 


1,287,406 


44 


Binghampton, N. Y. . 


4.13 


215,706 


34.9 


.19 


9,863 


11.83 


617,297 


45 


Elizabeth, N. J 


4.08 


340,275 


34.9 


.19 


16,230 


11.68 


975,156 


46 


Oklahoma City, Okla. 


3.96 


340,277 


43.8 


.09 


7,384 


9.05 


776,896 


47 


Norfolk, Va 


3.72 
3.67 


324,490 
197,368 


26.8 
33.6 


.06 
.10 


5,479 
5,678 


13.85 
10.90 


1 ,209,614 


48 


Little Rock, Ark 


586,333 


49 


E. St. Louis, 111 


3.45 


239,965 


35.2 


.12 


8,562 


9.82 


682,455 


50 


Covington, Ky 


3.36 


187,840 


29.6 


.17 


9,728 


11.17 


624,432 


51 


Allentown, Pa 

Wilmington, Del 


3.31 
3.14 


199,824 
290,745 


40.3 
32.2 






8.25 
9.46 


497,704 


52 


.16 


14,390 


875,974 


53 


Manchester. \. H. . 


3.13 


236,955 


25.2 


. 19 


14,306 


12.44 


94 1 ,023 


54 


Ft. Worth, Texas 


3 . 07 


289,895 


33. 1 


.10 


9,429 


9.26 


875,567 


55 


Savannah, Ga 


2 . 58 


175,499 


18.5 


.11 


7,521 


13.79 


936, .".97 


56 


Charlestown, S. C. . . . 


2.46 


147,804 


20.1 




100 


12. 19 


732, S27 


57 


Tampa, Fla 


2.45 


122,988 


17.2 






14.22 


713,240 


58 


Chattanooga, Tenn. . 


2.38 


134,879 


22.1 


.16 


8,945 


10.77 


610,906 


59 


Jacksonville, Fla 


2.14 


149,882 


14.6 


.16 


11,138 


14.60 


1 ,024,302 


60 


Mobile, Ala 


1.99 


110,012 


23.8 






8.39 


464,307 













Summary of Findings: Schools and Libraries 



93 



Table XII — Expenditures for Teachers' Salaries Per Capita of Popu- 
lation 6-20 Years of Age, and Per Pupil Enrolled in the Public 
Day Schools, for Selected Cities— 1913-1914* 



City 



Expenditures 








for teacher 


's salaries 








per capita 




Popula- 


Enroll- 






Salaries 
of 


tion 
6-20 years 


ment 






in day 


Popula- 


Enrollment 


teachers 


of age 


schools 


tion 


in day 








6-20 


schools 








$20 . 50 


$32 . 30 


$243,743 


11 ,889 


7,545 


19.34 


25.48 


153,579 


7,938 


6,026 


15. Gl 


23.03 


239,906 


15,356 


10,418 


15.12 


29.04 


246,400 


16,291 


8,485 


14.77 


17.75 


84 ,059 


5,696 


4,735 


14.33 


20.45 


82,594 


5,761 


4,039 


14.04 


21.83 


192,536 


13,715 


8,821 


13.25 


18.62 


160,993 


12,148 


8,645 


13.13 


17.24 


280,208 


21 ,430 


16,189 


12.99 


15.73 


215,259 


16,562 


13,683 


12.32 


22.28 


128,842 


10,458 


5,783 


12.31 


18.64 


281 ,080 


22,816 


15,072 


11.58 


16.46 


71 ,784 


6,198 


4,361 


11.51 


19.25 


172,668 


15,000 


8,973 


11.33 


18.14 


153,248 


13,520 


8,436 


11.01 


21.67 


104,207 


9,461 


4,808 


10.85 


20.20 


215,547 


19,881 


10,668 


10.41 


17.79 


86,290 


8,285 


4,848 


10.17 


23.16 


133,575 


13,131 


5,767 


10.05 


27.94 


190,205 


18,927 


6,879 


10.03 


22.80 


165,187 


16,471 


7,244 


9.62 


11.99 


144,371 


15,000 


12,037 


9.20 


14.70 


100,180 


13,940 


6,830 


9.05 


21.20 


82,748 


9,142 


3,910 


8.60 


22.48 


110,781 


12,820 


4,926 


8.32 


11.23 


58,255 


7,000 


5,184 


8.02 


19.60 


57,031 


7 , 109 


2,915 


7.58 


11.21 


74,545 


9,827 


6,649 


6.09 


10.94 


73,930 


12,121 


6,759 


5.88 


10.18 


85,214 


14,477 


8,367 


5.86 


9.66 


36,953 


6,299 


3,826 


5.54 


17.41 


159,523 


28,792 


9,165 


5.41 


13.27 


114,982 


20,915 


8,670 


4.99 


8.44 


54,361 


10,886 


6,435 



Butte, Mont 

Colorado Springs, Colo 

Peoria, III 

Terre Haute, Ind 

Elgin, 111 

Pueblo, Colo 

Springfield, 111 

Rockford, 111 

Akron, Ohio 

Oklahoma City, Okla. 

Wheeling, W. Va 

Youngstown, Ohio. . . . 

Newark, Ohio 

Canton, Ohio 

Springfield, Ohio 

Hamilton, Ohio 

Evansville, Ind 

Loraine, Ohio 

Joliet, 111 

Fort Wayne, Ind 

South Bend, Ind 

Jacksonville, Fla 

Decatur, 111 

Bloomington, 111 

Quincy, 111 

Columbia, S. C 

Aurora, 111 

Huntington, W. Ya. . . 

Knoxville, Tenn 

Chattanooga, Tenn . . . 

Wilmington, N. C. . . . 
East St. Louis, 111 ... . 

Little Rock, Ark 

Charlotte, N. C 



*The selected cities are those having an estimated population of 50,000 to 100,000, 
for which data are available in the school enumerations, showing the population over 
6 and under 21 years of age. 



94 Evansville Vocational Survey 

to books for adults. Of these borrowings 431,166 are credited 
to whites and 30,405 to colored persons, color of borrower not 
being designated in 10,987 cases. 

Volumes on useful arts. The public library listed 1,765 vol- 
umes on useful arts with a circulation during the period under 
review of 12,523 issues. The demand for volumes of this charac- 
ter will undoubtedly increase with the development of vocational 
education in the public schools. 

Library borrowers among persons scheduled by the Survey. 
The Survey scheduled 237 boys and girls who withdrew from 
school during the year 1915-16, and small occupational groups of 
workers. It found that 102 of the 237 children who had with- 
drawn from school were registered at the library as borrowers. 
In the several occupational groups scheduled the proportion of 
library borrowers varied, but was generally below the proportion 
show T n among children who had Avithdraw r n from school. In a 
total of 508 individuals, including these children, the number 
of registered borrowers was 168. 

School deposit stations and class room libraries. The library 
maintains 9 school deposit stations, in charge of paid assistants 
from the library, and 2 class room libraries. The distribution of 
books in the schools has been made a part of the regular school 
program. Teachers report improvement in the w r ork of pupils 
and an increased interest in books on the part of parents, wdiich 
is credited to this policy. These stations are opened for the 
withdrawal and return of books on certain afternoons and eve- 
nings of each week. 

Industrial stations. During the years 1914-1916, five industrial 
stations were opened, and these stations are credited with an 
aggregate circulation of 6,542 issues. It is the intention to inter- 
est factory employees in reading along vocational lines, and to 
increase the number of technical books available for circulation 
by these stations. 

The Willard Library. This influential institution, which is 
conducted as a reference library, caters to the needs of the schools, 
white and colored, and to literary clubs. It maintains reference 
lists upon such vocational and industrial subjects as accounting 
and business efficiency, salesmanship, carpentry, electricity, engi- 
neering, architecture, mechanical arts, homemaking, and farming 
and forestry. 



PART IV 

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE SURVEY 
COMMITTEE 

1. 

The case for vocational education in Evansville. The need for 
a system of vocational education in Evansville, a system that will 
help young people to fit themselves more thoroughly and more 
effectively for wage-earning, is shown by these facts, many of which 
are discussed more fully in the Findings on the Industries and 
the Schools. See Parts II, III, V and VI of this Report. 

1. At the present time children are allowed to leave the 
public schools at fourteen years of age if they have finished the 
fifth grade, without any further provision whatever for their 
education. For the most part, those who quit school at this age 
leave without any preparation for wage-earning and without an 
opportunity even of finding out what work they are best fitted 
to do in life. 

2. The belief is becoming general that at some time in the 
future Indiana should raise the age of compulsory attendance to 
sixteen years. But this step certainly should not be taken until 
the schools have added courses of instruction which appeal more 
to the native interest of boys and girls, and which more nearly 
meet their need for a kind of education they can use in every- 
day life, a kind of education adapted somewhat more to their 
economic necessities. 

3. About half the children between fourteen and sixteen years 
of age who are employed under working permits declare they 
want to be better trained for the work they are doing and that 
they are willing to return to school, if the school will offer courses 
which they need. 

4. We need a larger appeal to' the eye and to the touch, rather 
than to the present over-emphasized appeal to the ear. Children 
ought to express themselves more through motor activity. Most 
of them are naturally motor-minded and would learn a great deal 
they otherwise would lose if not appealed to through their motor 
activity. This condition demands a larger use of the manual arts 
and of vocational courses. 

5. One general conclusion from the Evansville Survey is this : 
The price paid for inefficiency by Evansville employers and wage- 

95 



96 Evansville Vocational Survey 

earners individually and therefore by the community collectively 
is not only enormous but excessive. This excessive cost item in 
economic service is a serious handicap to the community in its 
effort to raise or even to maintain present standards of economic 
and social welfare. No adequate provision has been made in the 
public schools or in the shop for reducing this great waste of 
energy, that is, by providing vocational instruction for those 
who are to be employed in its industries. 

6. The need for vocational education was emphasized in the 
enthusiastic support which the employers and employees gave 
to the Survey and in their unqualified endorsement of the proposal 
to establish classes and schools for training.* The large number 
of pupils enrolled and the large amount of money spent in pri- 
vate schools of all kinds go to show that there is a demand for 
courses of instruction which are not now given in the public 
schools. 

7. The tentative agreements and trade understandings which 
have been made in Evansville for the training of workers show 
that industry is not only in favor of vocational education but 
willing to co-operate actively in order to have the system properly 
administered. 

8. The sad lack of trained workers in the establishments of 
the city, which is acknowledged both by employers and employees, 
shows the need for industrial training. 

9. Industry recognizes its failure, under modern factory 
conditions, to give this training, and looks to the school to supple- 
ment the incomplete training to be had in the shop. 

10. All experience goes to show that a large advantage lies 
with the city which has the greatest number of trained workers. 
This explains why other American cities, notably Boston, Worces- 
ter, Springfield, Lowell, Lawrence, New Bedford, Albany, Buffalo, 
Syracuse, New York City, Yonkers, Jersey City, Newark, Pitts- 
burg, Cleveland, Cincinnati, New Orleans, St. Louis and Minne- 
apolis, are now establishing or extending systems of vocational 
education. 

11. Men are being displaced in the building trades in Evans- 
ville, as elsewhere, because they lack a knowledge of modern 
building construction, and this the school can best be equipped 
to give. 

12. This city, like other cities, needs higher standards of 



*See facts in regard to private schools. 



Conclusions and Recommendations 97 

workmanship if it is to occupy larger and more attractive mar- 
kets. Here again, vocational instruction only will prove effective. 

13. The growing industrial province of the city, calling as 
it is for workers in greater numbers and of higher skill to produce 
for specialized markets, demands a system of industrial educa- 
tion to promote knowledge and skill in mechanical processes. 

14. Evansville with its products, particularly those of wood, 
is facing the prohahility of international competition because the 
Ohio river, the Gulf of Mexico, and the Panama canal give it an 
outlet to and an inlet from the markets of South America and the 
world. Thus, the city will come into contact with the highly 
trained workers of Germany and like Germany must provide 
itself aq-ainst this competition by a system of industrial edu- 
cation. 

15. The general interest aroused among all classes of citizens 
by the work of the Survey and the hearty endorsement which it 
received from every quarter show conclusively that the proposal 
to provide vocational instruction in Evansville has a generous 
support. 

16. Evansville should not depend upon its private schools 
to srive this service. They give it for money. "While doctors, 
lawyers and business men are being given preparatory education 
in the hiq-h school for their life work at public expense, the wage 
earner should also he prepared for the work that he is to do, at 
nublic expense. The steps already taken in Evansville along this 
line are commendable. 

17. It is impossible for the private schools to meet the needs 
of the community in this respect. 

18. At present, most of the avenues of training young people 
in Evansville are paved only for the group of people who have 
special abilities and ambitions in business and professional work. 
There is need of adding other courses and schools which will offer 
avenues of training for other abilities and ambitions in productive 
callings. Failure of the schools to hold children until they have 
graduated from the elementary courses is a subject of frequent 
comment. The mortality rate in the hiHi school of Evansville is 
very large. This is a common condition in other cities. Tn Evans- 
ville this high mortality rate is due to many causes, among which 
may be mentioned the lack of suitable opportunities for vocational 
instruction. 



98 Evansville Vocational Survey 

19. The city is about to establish new Junior High Schools. 
It ought to make the work conform to the varying needs and 
abilities of boys and girls, and to do this, must include in its 
courses those giving children the prevocational training which 
enables them to select and follow the work in life to which they 
are best adapted. Up to the present time, a four years course 
in commercial work has been offered in the high school of the 
city. The attendance of so many children in private commercial 
schools at great personal expense shows the need for shorter 
courses of a vocational character. 

20. There is a social need of vocational education in Evans- 
ville as elsewhere, in order to democratize education ; in order to 
prepare boys and girls more properly for self support; in order 
to dignify labor ; in order to encourage self dependence ; and 
in order to bring about, on the part of the laboring classes, the 
feeling that the educational system is designed for the welfare 
of the mechanic as well as the welfare of the lawyer and the 
doctor. Perhaps the largest social and economic need which is 
met by vocational education is that of uncovering and developing 
the human resources of a community, the latent skill, the talent 
and technique of the worker. 

21. In any accurate cost accounting by this community, inef- 
ficiency must figure as a very large item of expense. It is estab- 
lished by the Survey, beyond any reasonable doubt, that the cost 
of efficiency, that is to say, the cost of developing and maintaining 
an adequate system of vocational instruction and training would 
be inconsiderable, as compared with the price now being paid from 
year to year for inefficiency. For a price far below that which the 
community is now paying for inefficiency, it could purchase a high 
measure of general efficiency, and the margin of efficiency over 
inefficiency would be a net economic profit to the community; in 
other words, the margin over and above what it is earning under 
present conditions. 

The social gains which would result from increased efficiency, 
if, in fact, they can be measured against the economic gains, would, 
perhaps, be of even greater value. It certainly is true that a 
condition of efficiency is superior socially as well as economically 
to a condition of inefficiency. 

In considering the cost of establishing and maintaining a 
system of vocational education in Evansville, it should be borne 
in mind that no approach has yet been made in this community 



Conclusions and Recommendations 99 

to that degree of efficiency where the cost of acquiring a larger 
measure begins to approximate the economic gains. On the con- 
trary, every dollar wisely spent now for vocational education 
and training, certainly, in the course of a few years, will yield 
back the original investment together with a large dividend to 
the community and to the state. It will probably be many years 
before a system of vocational education can be developed in 
Evansville to the point where an expenditure for its extension 
and improvement will be a doubtfully profitable investment of 
public money. 

The relation of vocational education to regular education in 
Evansville and Indiana. The Evansville Survey being a program 
study, only such facts about the industries and the schools have been 
collected as it was thought would prove helpful to the citizens and 
school authorities of the state and city in solving the problems of 
vocational training for the youth and citizens of Evansville. Hence 
the recommendations of the State Survey Committee necessarily 
must be somewhat different in character and scope than they would 
have been if this purpose had not been dominant in the Survey. 

The methods and findings of the Survey, and the analyses 
of the industries made for purposes of vocational training, as 
well as many of the recommendations of the Survey Committee 
will be helpful and interesting to other cities in the state. But 
for the reason stated, some things will be emphasized and dis- 
cussed in the recommendations which would not have been 
mentioned or dwelt upon if the purpose of the Survey had been 
otherwise or if the recommendations were addressed to a different 
audience. 

The recommendations are made primarily for the citizens and 
school authorities of Evansville. The chief purpose of the recom- 
mendations is to give to the school authorities and the people of 
Evansville as clear an understanding of the educational problems 
involved in providing vocational training for the youth of the 
city and as much practical help for organizing and carrying on 
vocational instruction in Evansville as it is possible to give on 
the basis of the data gathered in the Survey. 

If a program for vocational training is to be entered upon by 
the school authorities and citizens of Evansville it is essential 
that all parties concerned should understand clearly just what 
is meant by the term "Vocational Education" in order that 



100 Evansville' Vocational Survey 

recommendations may be clear and the best means developed for 
executing them. 

1. Vocational education defined and illustrated. Vocational 
education means just what the term implies, an education or 
training which aims to fit an individual or group of individuals 
for a particular occupation or trade; which seeks to help those 
already at work in an occupation for which training can be given 
to become more proficient in their chosen work, that is, by teach- 
ing them the mathematics, science, art or technique they need to 
know to become more proficient. 

Stated generally and broadly, vocational education seeks to 
serve a community or state by training all kinds of men and 
women, young and old, in all sorts of ways for all kinds of useful 
and productive work to the end that they may become more 
capable workers, more intelligent and, therefore, happier men 
and women and better citizens. 

The controlling purpose of a vocational department or school 
must therefore be to fit its students for proficient and effective 
work in a particular occupation or trade. The course of study 
in a vocational school or department must be made up of such 
practice or shop work and such academic and scientific subjects 
as are necessary or may be thought helpful to a group of students 
who desire to prepare themselves for the particular occupations 
taught in the school. All work and all subjects — technical, scien- 
tific and academic — which contribute to this purpose are selected ; 
all subjects which do not contribute to this purpose are excluded 
from the course. 

In a vocational school or course in printing, for example, that 
work is done and those subjects are taught which give the student 
the shop practice and skill which a practical printer must have to 
succeed. All instruction and all practice must prepare directly 
for work in a commercial print shop. One-half the student's time 
ordinarily is set apart to the strictly technical shop work, while 
the rest of the student's time is devoted to a study of such English, 
mathematics, art, or science work as will prove especially helpful 
in the printer's trade. 

The course in English, for example, would include spelling, 
punctuation, English composition and proofreading; composi- 
tions would be written on the history of printing and about print- 
ing materials; actual copy would be corrected and prepared 
for the press. The course in the printing art would include a 



Conclusions and Recommendations 101 

study of the more important forms of type, type harmony, tone 
harmony, appropriate arrangements of lines and masses, design 
and color harmony. In the mathematics of printing, the cutting 
of stock and estimates made on the cost of materials would be 
emphasized. 

Industrial history and geography might interest the boys in 
the possibilities of various fields of work and broaden their view 
of life. Instruction in personal and shop hygiene and instruction 
in practical citizenship are included in the course because the 
purpose of every vocational school is not merely to make more 
intelligent, capable and ambitious workers, but happier and 
more useful citizens. The same principle is followed in organizing 
the course of study for other kinds of vocational schools. 

In a school for home-making, for example, those subjects are 
selected — technical, scientific and academic — which will give those 
taking the course the greatest possible assistance in fitting them- 
selves for the business of home-making. 

Just as when a prospective teacher enrolls in a normal school 
to prepare himself for the business of teaching, or when a young 
man enters a law school to prepare for the practice of law, the 
enrollment of a student in a vocational course means that he has 
thereby indicated a desire to fit himself by education and training 
for one of the occupations taught in that school. 

This is true because all the subjects of the course have been 
selected with the vocational purpose in mind and because all of 
the work of the school is so planned and conducted that it will 
fit the student taking the course for work in a particular occu- 
pation. 

From this definition and illustration of vocational education 
it may readily be seen that the instruction now given in our 
regular schools is not vocational in either its aim or results. 
Our public schools, as at present conducted, merely attempt to 
prepare a high grade of raw material; a vocational department 
or vocational school, on the other hand, aims to turn out so far 
as this is possible a finished product — printers, carpenters, teach- 
ers or lawyers — students trained by education and practice for a 
particular kind of work. 

From the foregoing definition and illustration it is also clear 
that the general instruction in home economics, manual training 
and agriculture now given in the public schools of the state is 
not vocational work because the primary purpose of this instruc- 



102 Evansville Vocational Survey 

tion is not to fit the students who take these courses for profitable 
wage-earning in the respective fields and because, furthermore, 
other subjects which these students take are selected more or less 
at random, certainly not because they contribute to the occupa- 
tional efficiency of the students. The occupational interest is 
scarcely thought of at all. 

Theoretically, vocational education aims to develop the full 
talents and capacities of all our people. 

(1) By ascertaining what these talents and capacities are. 

(2) By giving full opportunity, through the work of the 
schools, for the cultivation and development of whatever talents 
and capacities the pupils may possess. Practically, it means that 
we try to fit all classes of people in the state for some form of 
creative and useful work and so far as this may be done, for the 
kind of work which is in harmony with their talents and interests. 

11. Relation of vocational instruction to the ivork now car- 
ried on in the public schools. The vocational departments and 
vocational schools to be organized under the Indiana law, there- 
fore, contemplate a distinct enlargement or extension of the state 
system of public schools and are not to be regarded as an attempt 
to modify or change any part of their present work. They are 
under the control of the same Board of Education and Superin- 
tendent which control the other schools and an integral part of 
the public school system of the state, but they are organized and 
conducted to do a distinct type of work not attempted heretofore 
by the regular schools. 

In the passage of the vocational law, Indiana undertook the 
task of providing efficient vocational education for all her people. 
The people of the state have come to feel that the chief aim and 
purpose of life does not consist primarily in learning how to 
consume, but in learning how to produce as well. They have rec- 
ognized the fact that it takes a skilled worker or producer to make 
a good citizen and they believe that every citizen should be pre- 
pared by education and training for some form of useful work. 
Indiana, we are pleased to say, is one of the few states where it 
is clearly seen that until this has been accomplished, the individ- 
ual will not be able to make his life of value to himself or himself 
of service to society. 

Vocational education as provided for by the Indiana law and 
as it is being administered by the Indiana State Board of Educa- 
tion, therefore, docs not come as a modification of of ;i substitute 



Conclusions and Recommendations 103 

for the work now being done in the public schools. It is a dis- 
tinct extension or enlargement of the former system. Vocational 
and general education do not conflict ; they are different phases of 
the educational processes. 

General education provides the necessary base upon which 
vocational or specialized education must build. The amount 
of general education that is necessary before vocational education 
profitably begins varies for the different occupations and pro- 
fessions that are to be mastered. Both general and vocational 
education are needed properly to prepare young people to become 
useful and productive citizens. The two phases of educational 
effort do not and cannot conflict. General education comes first; 
vocational education comes, or should come, as the culmination 
or last step in the educational process of every individual. 

III. What a complete scheme of vocational training for Evans- 
ville includes. There are in reality three important steps in 
the process of preparing your present and future citizens for cre- 
ative and productive employment. 

First : A period of general education is necessary, a period 
when the foundations for all occupations and future work are 
laid. All occupations and callings in life require a certain amount 
of general education before efficient preparation for a specific 
occupation can profitably begin. This instruction in the regular 
public schools is being improved constantly and especially in its 
adaptation to the individual needs of the public. It is fundamental 
and basic that the general preparation necessary or desirable be- 
fore vocational instruction ought to begin, differs according to 
the particular profession or calling. Vocational instruction as 
such presupposes this general educational basis and no recom- 
mendations will be made in this report bearing on this basic work 
in the public schools, save to emphasize its importance for the 
specialized vocational work. 

Second : There must be a period in the process of training 
when the attention of the pupils in the regular schools should 
be centered in "finding" themselves, so to speak, vocationally; 
a period during which all pupils, along with their regular and 
basic school work, should be given the kind of instruction which 
will help them to make a wise choice of their life Avork, that is, 
of training which leads naturally in the direction of their life 
work; a period during which information pertaining to the vari- 
ous occupations and professions is emphasized and when the 



104 Evansville Vocational Survey 

pupils are given an opportunity to try themselves out by means 
of shop work in several fundamental lines of work; to test their 
vital interests and talents. In regard to the importance of the 
work in this prevocational period, definite recommendations will 
be made by this Committee. 

Third: It is the thought of the Survey Committee and we 
believe of progressive educators generally, that this finding or 
try-out period in the pupil's school career should be followed 
by a period of instruction in which the work is chiefly vocational, 
a period when the aim of the entire course of study should be 
to prepare directly, but on a high plane, for a particular occupa- 
tion. This principle has been recognized for many years by our 
university and professional schools, but a loss of time and energy 
in our public schools has been experienced because it has been 
ignored in the organization of educational work below college 
grade. 

The chief work of the Committee consists in making recom- 
mendations in regard to this strictly vocational work — that is to 
say, making recommendations in regard to the instruction which 
should be organized in day, part-time and night vocational schools 
which seek to provide suitable vocational instruction for the 
young people and citizens of Evansville. But before passing 
on to this task, a word should be said concerning the preparatory 
work in the prevocational or Junior High School period described 
above. 

IV. Recommendations of State Survey Committee regard- 
ing the practical arts instruction in the regular schools. The 
Indiana Vocational law provides in Section V that elementary 
agriculture be taught in the grades of all town and township 
schools; that elementary industrial work shall be taught in the 
grades of all city and town schools and that elementary domestic 
science shall be taught in the grades of the city, town and town- 
ship schools. The State Board of Education is also directed by the 
law to outline a course of study for each of such grades as they 
may determine, which shall be followed as a minimum require- 
ment and to outline a course of study in agriculture, domestic 
science and industrial arts which they may require city, town 
and township high schools to offer as regular courses. 

It is the opinion of the Indiana authorities, with whom the 
Survey Committee agrees, that vocational training which aims to 
prepare directly for a specific occupation or calling in life cannot 



Conclusions and^Recommendations 105 

be given with economy and profit, unless the right sort of founda- 
tion in general and for vocational education has been laid and 
unless there is established in co-ordination with regular and pre- 
vocational school instruction high ideals of service, a knowledge 
about and interest in the fundamental occupations of life, correct 
habits of thinking and work and keen power of observation and 
control. 

Practical arts work in the regular schools is, therefore, re- 
garded as a very necessary preliminary step in the program for 
efficient vocational instruction as such. (See Indiana State 
Course of Study on Industrial Arts, Vocational Bulletin No. 19, 
Vocational Series No. 12, pages 6 to 14.) 

Three lines of practical arts work have been specifically pro- 
vided for by the Indiana law: Work in industrial arts, domestic 
science and agriculture. To this the Committee believes might 
well be added instruction in commercial subjects. 

The aim of the instruction in all these- practical arts subjects 
as in other fields of educational work should, in the judgment of 
the Committee, be determined not primarily by the nature of the 
subjects to be learned, but by the nature and needs of the student 
:aking the work. Four distinct stages or periods in this work 
have been distinguished by the Indiana authorities: (1) The 
kindergarten stage, embracing whatever hand and manipulative 
instruction is given in the first six years of child life; (2) the 
elementary period, extending normally from six to about twelve 
years of age and embracing whatever hand and practical arts 
instruction is given in the first six years of the elementary school 
course; (3) a prevocational or finding period, extending normally 
from twelve to sixteen years of age and embracing normally the 
work of the 7th, 8th and 9th school years; (4) the vocational 
period proper, ranging from 16 to 30 years, when the chief aim of 
the instruction given should be to prepare for a definite calling 
or the life career. 

It is clear that the purpose and methods of the practical arts 
instruction to be given in each of these several periods should 
differ widely and that the limits of these various stages cannot be 
definitely fixed. For some pupils, for example, the prevocational 
or finding period will be short, and will consist merely of a brief 
finding and try-out period, followed at 14 or 16 by special voca- 
tional instruction, so selected and conducted as to prepare for 
a particular occupation or trade. Where no opportunity is pro- 



106 Evans ville Vocation al[Survey 

vided for obtaining such prevocational and vocational courses, the 
boy who must go to work will at this stage merely drift into some 
line of work without any guidance or special preparation for the 
work he desires to undertake. For other pupils and groups of 
pupils this finding and try-out period should be followed by a 
study of certain subjects which will give a helpful and broad 
foundation for the specific professional or technical work which 
they expect later to take up, when preparation for a particular 
occupation begins. In all such cases the vocational work to be 
done in a professional or higher technical school would not begin 
until such professional preparatory courses have been finished. 

The specific aim of the work to be done in each of these four 
stages in the pupils' school career has been sufficiently well de- 
fined by the Indiana state authorities in their course of study to 
give the school authorities of Evansville specific help and direction 
in the development of this practical arts work. As already indi- 
cated, the chief concern of the State Survey Committee is to make 
recommendations concerning the instruction to be given in the 
fourth, or vocational period proper, but the Committee believes 
that the practical arts instruction to be given in the third or 
Junior High School period, is of such vital and far reaching impor- 
tance that some definite statement in regard to its aim and char- 
acter should be made by the Committee in this report. 

The Committee believes that the aim of the practical arts 
instruction in this finding or prevocational period should be two- 
fold in character : (1) It should give the pupil a true understand- 
ing of an appreciation for the more important industrial activities 
represented in Evansville, and those upon which the maintenance 
and welfare of the country and state depend. (2) It should be 
so planned and conducted that it will assist all pupils taking 
the courses to determine their vocational aim or bent by providing 
typical experiences in a few lines of work whereby the pupils 
may try themselves out, so to speak, or test their interest in and 
fitness for the particular lines of work taken up in the school shop. 

To accomplish these results students must be given experiences 
which are really typical of present-day conditions and methods of 
work in the industries studied. Three methods of study may be 
distinguished. (1) The participation or sliop method, where the 
pupil learns about the industry by actual participation in a school 
shop conducted as nearly as possible along lines typical of the 
processes in the industry to be studied. (2) The obst rvation 



Conclusions and Recommendations 107 

method, where certain industries, which cannot be duplicated in 
a school shop (railroad and steam engineering, paper making, 
the manufacture of boots and shoes, automobiles, etc.) are studied 
by visits to these plants where a certain knowledge of the indus- 
trial processes involved may be acquired. (3) The academic method, 
where pupils read about the industry in books, or by means of 
pictures and lectures, try to gain some information about the more 
important present-day industries. 

The Committee believes that the best information about any 
industry will be obtained by the first method, and that those 
industries should be selected for intensive study during this pre- 
vocatfonal period which may be studied by actual participation 
in the work. The Committee further believes that full provision 
should be made by the local school authorities for conducting the 
practical arts work to be given in this prevocational period, and 
that ample provision should be made by the state and local school 
authorities for its proper organization and supervision, because it 
constitutes a necessary preliminary step to the vocational work 
as such, which is to follow. 

V. Recommendations of Committee in regard to organization 
and development of vocational instruction. To provide a complete 
scheme of vocational training for Evansville the following groups 
of individuals must be provided for: (1) Adults and young 
people over 17 years of age who are ambitious and who are en- 
gaged in occupations for which definite vocational instruction can 
be given — the vocational needs of this group may be met by devel- 
oping the evening vocational schools provided for in the Indiana 
law, which seek to give to those already engaged in the trade, 
the science, mathematics, drawing and trade processes involved in 
the occupation or trade in which they are engaged. (See Section 
1, article 7 of the Indiana law) ; (2) young people between 14 
and 25 years of age who are engaged as workers or apprentices 
in occupations or trades which they expect to follow as a life 
career, and for which definite training or instruction may be 
given, such as salespersons, apprentices in skilled trades, etc. — 
the vocational needs of all such groups in Evansville may be met 
by the organization of part-time vocational classes, as is provided 
for in the Indiana law (See Section 1, article 8) ; (3) young 
people between the ages of 14 and 25 who are engaged in juvenile 
pursuits more or less temporary in character and for which voca- 
tional instruction, as such, cannot be given — the needs of that 



108 Evansville Vocational Survey 

part of this group of young people, from 14 to 16 years of age, 
however, may be met in Evansville, if the compulsory general 
continuation school law, recommended by the Committee and 
state authorities is passed by the next Legislature. The passage 
of such a compulsory continuation, school law will enable 
Evansville to take care of this latter group of young people 
in accordance with their needs; (4) these pupils now in the 
Evansville school who desire or feel that they must begin 
to prepare for a specific occupation or trade as soon as they 
have finished their seventh or eighth year work in the Junior 
Hi gli School — the vocational needs of this group can best be met 
in Evansville, Ave believe, by organizing two-year elementary voca- 
tional courses in connection with the Junior High School during 
the ninth and tenth school year. Such vocational departments or 
courses should be organized for the more important industries of 
Evansville as is provided for under Sections 1 and 2 of the 
Indiana Vocational Law, making provisions for the all-day voca- 
tional schools; (5) a group of young people who can remain in 
the high school until they have finished their Senior High School 
course, but whose school career will end when they graduate from 
the high school — this group of young people should be prepared 
for directive positions in business and industry; (6) those who 
expect to finish their Senior High School course and go on to college 
or a higher technical school to prepare for the professions or posi- 
tions of leadership in business and industry— the vocational needs 
of this group are already well met by the existing high school and 
by the professional and higher technical schools of the state, which 
provide both a basic general education and the special vocational 
instruction needed by this group of young people. 

Specific recommendations for the development of evening vo- 
cational schools, part-time and day vocational classes are given 
below. Definite type courses of study for each of these kinds of 
schools have been prepared by the Committee for the more impor- 
tant trades and industries represented in Evansville. (See Appen- 
dix I, page 491, of this Report.) 



( 

Conclusions and Recommendations 109 

*The Imminence of a Rise in the Age of Compulsory School 

Attendance 

All the signs seem to point toward 16 years as the minimum 
age at which boys and girls who have not completed the eighth 
grade will be permitted by law in the future to go to work. Skilled 
industries do not want the worker under 16. The number and 
kinds of juvenile employments open to youths from 14 to 16 
years of age, on the other hand, are being restricted constantly by 
law, and, on the other, by the voluntary action of employers who 
have come to regard child labor as being unprofitable. Many 
states already have raised the age of compulsory schooling to 16. 
Other states assert their right and duty to control the education 
of children up to 16 years by providing compulsory continuation 
schools for their further training, especially those employed as 
wage-earners. Wisconsin has undertaken evpn to regulate the 
employment and education of apprentices up to 18 years of age. 

Perhaps even more significant is the Federal Child Labor Act 
passed by the last Congress. This act? provides that after Sep- 
tember, 1917, it shall be unlawful to transport in interstate and 
foreign commerce : (1) The product of any mine or quarry devel- 
oped by the labor of children under 14 years of age ; (2) the prod- 
uct of any mill, cannery, workshop, factory, etc., employing children 
under 14 years of age or children from 14 to 16 years of age 
who work more than 8 hours a day for six days per week or later 
than 7 p. m., or which require such children to go to work before 
6 a. re. The illegality attaches to the shipment if the mine, mill, 
etc., employed children of the ages indicated within thirty days 
of the removal of the product for shipment, but the illegality 
would be avoided if the employer had in good faith relied upon 
a certificate that tha child or children in question were of proper 
age. 

The bill prohibits the use of child labor employed only in 
the actual processes of manufacture of articles offered for trans- 
portation in interstate or foreign commerce. Children could still 
be used, for instance, in carrying tools and cleaning away rubbisli. 

Appropriate regulations are to be provided by the Attorney 
General, the Secretary of Labor and the Secretary of Commerce, 
who are constituted a board for the enforcement of the terms 
of the bill. Violations are punishable by fine of not more than 

*This is based ~largely~on 'pronouncements "made at a conference of State Administrators of Vocational 
Education and representatives of Child Labor Organizations held at East Aurora, N. Y., November 4, 1916. 
under the auspices of the National Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education. 



110 Evansville Vocational Survey 

$200, which may be increased for subsequent offenses, or im- 
prisonment may be added. Dealers who can show guaranties 
from the manufacturers that products handled by them are not 
manufactured in violation of the terms of the bill will not be 
held to liability. For the purposes of the bill only dealers located 
within the state where goods handled by them are manufactured 
will be required to show a guaranty that they are not manufac- 
tured in violation of the terms of the bill. 

The Federal Child Labor Law, in general, will probably act 
as a restriction on juvenile labor in productive industry in four 
ways : 

a. Age. (For the purpose of this discussion, children between 

the ages of 14 and 16.) 

b. Length of working day. 

c. Hours when work may be performed. 

d. Certain occupations. 

In any state already having restrictive legislation on these 
four points, establishing standards of employment equal to or in 
advance of all those enumerated in the preceding paragraph, the 
present situation in regard to employment and schooling is un- 
changed; but in those states falling below any one of the stand- 
ards established by the Federal Child Labor Act, there will be 
temporarily at least a number of young people dropped out of 
industry and forced into existing day schools. 

The Indiana Child Labor laws already forbid the employment 
of children under 14 in mines and quarries and require the employer* 
to keep on file certificates containing certain information regarding 
those children employed in mines and quarries who are under 16 
years of age. Here, it would appear that so far as the products of 
mine and quarries designed for interstate shipment are concerned 
the Federal act amounts to an additional prohibition of the employ- 
ment of children between 14 and 16 years of age. 

The Indiana Child Labor Laws already prohibit the employ- 
ment of children under 14 years of age in any gainful occupa- 
tions, except farm work and domestic service and except further 
that children between the ages of 12 and 14 may be employed in 
canneries between June 1 and October 1 of each year. Here, 
the Federal Child Labor Act amounts to an additional prohibition 
of the employment of children from 12 to 14 in canneries where 
the product is designed for interstate shipment. 



Conclusions and Recommendations 111 

Finally, the Indiana Child Labor Laws already prohibit the 
employment of children more than 48 hours a week or 8 hours 
a day, except by permit of the parent or guardian, they may be 
permitted to work 54 hours a week and 9 hours a day. The 
Indiana laws governing hours of work in a day prohibit employ- 
ment of children under 16 before 7 a. m. and after 6 p. m. The 
Federal law permits them to go to work at 6 a. m. and does not 
require them to quit before 7 p. m. Here, therefore, the Federal 
Child Labor Law amounts to an additional prohibition only in that 
it does not allow children under 16 to work more than 48 hours 
a week and 8 hours a day by special permit of the parent or 
guardian. 

To sum up, the only use of child labor in Indiana that will 
be affected by the Federal act is the employment of children 
between 14 and 16 in mines and quarries and the employment of 
children between 12 and 14 in canneries and in these two cases 
the Federal Act will not apply to products consumed within the 
state. There are no mines of any consequence in Vanderburg 
County, so that the first application of the Federal Act is prac- 
tically null. The prohibition of the employment of children be- 
tween 12 and 14 in canneries between June 1 and October 1 will 
scarcely affect public school attendance at all, inasmuch as school 
is not in session to exceed two or three weeks of this period. 
Moreover, it is doubtful where the products of canneries designed 
for interstate shipment actually will fall within the prohibition 
of the Federal Child Labor Act because of the 30-day removal 
clause. In the natural course of the canning business the product 
is seldom shipped within a period of thirty days. 

Although the Federal Child Labor Act is more or less out of 
point so far as Evansville, and, for that matter, Indiana are con- 
cerned, a discussion of its general operation is of interest here 
because of its possible effect on the rest of the country. 

The day schools likely to receive the greatest number of these 
unemployed will be the regular elementary schools. For a time 
it is clear, we may expect a noticeable decrease in attendance in 
continuation schools. Experience demonstrates that the manu- 
facturer will first attempt to meet the shortage of juvenile labor 
in one or both of two ways : 

a. By the substitution of adult labor. 

b. By the introduction of automatic machinery. 



112 Evansville Vocational Survey 

If either or both of these do not meet his needs, he again will 
open the way for young people between 14 and 16 to obtain 
employment, by readjusting his working schedule. As the busi- 
ness isj adjusted to the demands of the new conditions of employ- 
ment continuation school attendance will increase. So long as 
children between 14 and 16 years of age are employed in industry, 
there will be need for continuation schools. 

It may be expected, however, that some attempts to substitute 
adult labor and to introduce automatic machinery will be so suc- 
cessful as to result in the permanent use of such machinery in the 
factory. This machinery will take the place permanently, then, 
of a considerable number of young people heretofore employed, 
and there will be a diminishing attendance in continuation schools 
for children 14 to 16 years of age and an increased attendance in 
full-time day schools. 

It may be predicted with considerable measure of certainty 
that one of two conditions will arise: First, in some sections 
of the country, a tendency will appear, amounting in the aggre- 
gate, to increased attendance upon established vocational schools ; 
second, in other sections, and more generally, there will be tem- 
porarily at least, greatly increased attendance in the regular 
public schools giving general education. It is believed that neither 
of these avenues of instruction will permanently satisfy the pub- 
lic, for neither kind of school as at present organized, is prepared 
to deal efficiently with all the types of children seeking educa- 
tional opportunities. 

The Federal Child Labor Act, we may believe, will be one 
of the factors tending to raise gradually the age of compulsory 
school attendance to 16 years. This result will not come about 
immediately. It is, however, of sufficient present importance to 
require careful consideration of w T ays and means of adjusting, 
reorganizing and in many instances establishing new types of 
schools and methods of educating young people between the ages 
of 12 and 16 years. 

"While the Committee does not undertake to predict definitely 
the effect of the passage of this measure either upon the employ- 
ment of the 14-to-16-year-old child or upon future legislation as 
to compulsory school attendance, it does believe these things to be 
true: 

1. Any comprehensive planning of a system of vocational 
education For Evansville or any other city at the present time 



Conclusions and Recommendations 113 

must take into consideration the very great probability that 
sweeping changes in the employment and education of children 
under 16 years of age are imminent, changes to which this plan 
must be adaptable. 

2. It seems highly probable that as soon as this law goes into 
effect the employment of children under 16 years of age in pro- 
ductive industries will be greatly reduced in some lines if it does 
not cease altogether. 

3. It seems equally probable that either the number of chil- 
dren leaving school to find employment at 14 will be reduced or 
that the number of such children out of school and out of work 
will be greatly increased. With an effective enforcement of the 
compulsory attendance and permit laws, the latter group will 
be returned to school. 

4. If the first be true, then there is need for the establish- 
ment of prevocational and vocational courses for the better edu- 
cation of the prospective wage-earner who remains longer in 
school or is sent back to school. 

5. If the second be true, then the numbers to be dealt with 
in a compulsory continuation school such as is recommended for 
the state in this Report would be reduced, though to what extent 
no one can predict. 

6. It seems equally certain that if children under 16 are no 
longer engaged in productive industry, then the compulsory con- 
tinuation school pupil would be largely the juvenile under 16 
employed in other than productive callings, such as messenger 
service, delivery service and department store service. Such 
continuation school would doubtless under such conditions become 
almost entirely an opportunity school extending the general 
knowledge and vocational interest of the child. 

7. There needs to be a careful consideration of the whole 
situation before any extensive plans are put into effect in Evans- 
ville. Employees and employers as well as social workers and 
educators should get together on the facts and arrive at some 
method of meeting the situation. 

Regardless of what may be the final issue of the problem as 
to what shall be done concerning the work and the schooling of 
children under 16 years of age, the Committee believes, as has 
already been stated, that Indiana at the coming General Assem- 
bly, should enact a law requiring all employed children under 16 



114 EVANSVILLE^VOCATIONAL SURVEY 

to attend continuation classes for not less than eight hours 
out of their working week and that the classes established at 
Evansville as elsewhere should be flexible enough in organization 
and in instruction to meet the widely differing interests and de- 
mands of the juvenile workers. At the present time the Com- 
mittee does not of itself purpose legislation raising the age of 
compulsory school attendance because it does not seem clear that 
public sentiment is ready for the step and it does seem clear 
that the schools of the state are not ready to deal properly with 
the children who would be retained or returned to the school. 

Compulsory Continuation Schools and Classes 

One outstanding conclusion derived from the Evansville Sur- 
vey is that although employers generally speaking do not want 
to employ in their shops boys and girls under 16 years of age, 
it nevertheless is true that the schools for many of these children 
do not provide the sort of instruction which warrants keeping 
them in school. 

The 14-to-16-year-old children are not wanted in industry, 
and are not properly provided for in the schools. 

It is clearly established in the findings of the Survey that these 
children leave school in large numbers, although it is not possible 
to determine from data available where they are going or have 
been going for years past. For these ages, which embrace the 
most critical period in the youth's development, the community 
has no data sufficiently accurate and complete to be of any value. 

The child is not graduated by the school into industry, but is 
rather, in the large majority of cases, submerged in the commu- 
nity's life, and left to establish such uncertain economic rela- 
tionships as accident makes possible. Many boys and girls drop 
out of school to take up one employment or another as accidental 
opportunity presents itself, generally without intelligent choice 
or guidance with reference to personal qualifications. 

These children thus vanish from the educational purview at 
precisely that age when they especially require vocational guid- 
ance, instruction and training and for several years do not become 
established in the field of economic activity. 

The school training of a large proportion of Evansville work- 
ers in fact amounts to only five or six grades. These workers, 
young and old, have with few exceptions received very inade- 
quate, if any, industrial training other than that which is picked 



Conclusions and Recommendations 115 

up on the job, and in many establishments the product has been 
so standardized and the separate processes have been so simplified 
that shop work has comparatively little value as a means of gain- 
ing general industrial training. 

For these workers of inadequate schooling and industrial 
training the public schools of Evansville have not provided even 
a meager opportunity for improvement in any sort of continua- 
tion courses. In the mass, under the present conditions, the 
workers of Evansville, young and old, have been condemned to 
live on in a condition of perpetual ignorance and of general indus- 
trial inefficiency because of the extreme specialization of proc- 
esses and rigidity of the organization of labor. Unless some 
readjustment, or development, of the school system with reference 
to or in the direction of local needs is effected, present conditions 
are likely to continue indefinitely. 

While it is true that a large proportion of Evansville workers 
have come into the city from the surrounding country, and even 
from neighboring states, it is true, also, that present conditions 
obtaining in the city are entirely consistent with the local school 
system, and that there is little promise whatever in the school 
system, as at present organized, of any improvement as regards 
the school or industrial training of the workers. 

Whether or not present conditions have been created entirely 
by the schools, these conditions clearly are being perpetuated 
by the school system. This statement is justified especially by 
the evidence that a large number of children under sixteen years 
of age are not attending school, although the law requiring that 
such children shall have permits to work has not been strictly 
enforced. 

Boys and girls who leave school at the age of 14 to 16 years 
are not old enough to enter upon an apprenticeship, and in the 
main the doors of the more desirable skilled employments are 
closed to them. The result is that on leaving school they shift 
about from one occupation to another with little opportunity to 
acquire skill or to increase their wage-earning capacity in any 
occupation. By far the larger number soon attain their maximum 
earning capacity, which they find insufficient for the maintenance 
of decent standards of living when they become men and women. 

Under present industrial conditions most of these permit chil- 
dren should be preparing for bettor citizenship and better work- 
manship, through schools more keenly alive to their needs and 



116 Evansville Vocational Survey 

more responsive to their varying interests and abilities. The 
time will doubtless come in the near future when the State of 
Indiana w r ill realize that the employment, under present condi- 
tions at least, of young children without even an elementary 
school education is a sad social and economic waste at the upper 
end of their careers. The state is preparing to deal with this 
question in proportion as it is now stimulating new forms of 
education for these long neglected boys and girls. 

It is the feeling of the Committee, however, that so long as the 
present age and grade requirements for leaving school continue, 
a compulsory continuation school should be established by law 
which w T ould claim a part of the time of all permit children out 
of their working day or week in order to improve their general 
or vocational preparation for life. 

The Indiana Vocational Education Law is designed to meet 
the vocational needs of youth in day, part-time and evening 
schools and classes. There are fully 30,000 youth in Indiana 
between the ages of 14 and 16 whose needs are not met by the 
vocational schools. They are out of school and are either roaming 
the streets or engaged for the most part in juvenile employments 
with little or no future opportunities. Some educational advan- 
tages must be afforded these youth if the obligation of the state 
is to be properly discharged. They must be afforded an oppor- 
tunity to enlarge their civic and vocational intelligence to enable 
them to direct the choice of a life work and prepare them for 
more effective citizenship. 

We recommend that continuation schools and classes be organ- 
ized to meet the needs of youth between fourteen and sixteen 
years of age who are out of school or who are employed as permit- 
workers. We recommend the following outline of a bill : 

1. Every city of over 5,000 inhabitants shall be required to 
establish continuation schools or classes. 

2. All other cities, towns and townships may establish contin- 
uation schools or classes. 

3. Whenever a continuation school or class has been estab- 
lished, attendance shall be compulsory for all youth 
between fourteen and sixteen, not otherwise enrolled in 
the schools, for not less than eight hours per week for eight 
months in the year. 

4. The state shall give aid for continuation schools equal to 
one-half the cost of teachers. 



Conclusions and Recommendations 117 

5. Employers shall allow a reduction of time for youth be- 
tween fourteen and sixteen employed by them for the 
time required to be in school. 

6. Proper penalties shall be attached for violation. 

The Enforcement of the Compulsory Attendance Law in Evans- 

ville 

The way in which the compulsory attendance law has been 
enforced in Evansville is as shown by the Findings of the Survey, 
open to srrave criticism. (Part 1, page 14.) 

The Committee believes that the attendance required by law 
upon the schools is necessary not only to the education of the 
child but to his future well-being as a worker as well as a citizen. 
Some steps should be taken at once to remedy the defects in the 
enforcement of the attendance laws in Evansville. 

The Committee recommends : 

That the appended card be used in keeping a permanent rec- 
ord of each child to whom a work permit has been granted. 

That each city of over 10,000 inhabitants shall fix and pay the 
salaries of their attendance officers. 

That the school board of each city of over 10,000 inhabitants 
be permitted to appoint as many attendance officers as it shall 
deem necessary to carry out the provisions of the law, relating 
to compulsory school attendance and the issuing of work permits. 

That the appointment of these officers shall be made in the 
same manner as the appointment of teachers; and the qualifica- 
tions be equivalent to the qualifications of elementary teachers 
as regards general education. 

That salaries be fixed by the school board on the same scale 
as that paid elementary school teachers. 

That the issuance of permits be discretionary with the officer 
charged with this responsibility. 

First, as regards economic conditions of the family. 
Second, as regards the nature of employment. 
Third, as regards the physical condition of the child, but 
no child shall be refused a permit on account of physical 
condition without an examination by a physician approved 
by the issuing officer. 

That all necessary revisions of the present laws governing 
school attendance and the issuing of work permits be made to 
put into effect the above recommendations. 



118 



Evansville Vocational Survey 





Permit Workers Personal History Card Fopm'i 


DATE orpiRTH 


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Name 


Sex I Color 


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NATURE Or EMPLOYMENT 






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A/ATURt OF WORK 


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NATURE OF WOW 




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VOCATIONAL APTITUDE 


RE-ENTERED SCHOOL 


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re-entered School 








DATE 


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Date 


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Reasons for leavinc School 






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Comment on Home Environment 


Comment on employment 


COMMENT ON SCHOOL RCCOfD 
























































PENT P.R MONTH 































The Junior High School and Prevocational Training 

The Committee believes that the best way in which to meet the 
demand for prevocational training in the industrial, household, 
commercial and agricultural arts of Evansville is through centers 
known as Junior High Schools for the education of pupils during 
the 7th, 8th and 9th years. This recommendation the School 
Board of Evansville lias in effect anticipated by providing for 
the establishment of two new Junior High Schools in addition 



Conclusions and_Recommendations 119 

to the one now operated in connection with the regular high 
school. Attention is here called to the Findings on the present 
Junior High School. See Part I, page 17, in which the failure 
of the school to offer differentiated courses for different groups is 
described. 

There should not be one course but a number of differentiated 
courses in the new Junior High Schools of Evansville. In the 
opinion of the Committee, there should be one course in the Junior 
High School open to those who expect to j)repare for college. 
There should be a commercial course open to those who expect 
to try themselves in various lines of commercial work with the 
idea of taking up such work more thoroughly in the high school. 
There should be a course in household arts for the girls who 
are interested in this work. There should be industrial courses 
for those who desire to try out a number of fundamental indus- 
tries in order to find out which one of them they desire to follow. 
There should also be courses in agricultural arts for those who are 
interested in them. 

In the Junior High School all the pupils would take some 
subjects in common such as English and music and physical 
training and possibly mathematics, geography and history. They 
would, however, separate for the purpose of taking the work 
which was distinctly prevocational in aim in these different lines, 
such as commercial work, household arts work, industrial work, 
agricultural work and college preparatory work. 

Pupils should be free to elect one of these courses and free 
to shift from one course to another. The entrance requirements 
of the Senior High School should be such that the pupils grad- 
uating from any or all the courses of the Junior High School 
would find ready entrance to the work of the grades above. At 
least the general courses of the high school should be open to 
any group taking the prevocational courses of any kind in the 
Junior High School and who desire to change. 

The Committee recognizes that the aim of the practical arts 
work of every kind in the prevocational courses of the Junior 
High School is to give boys and girls a chance to sample the try- 
out in an elementary way of work in a number of different lines 
both for its educative value and for the experience which it gives 
as a basis for selection of further training. How many lines of 
work shall be sampled is dependent upon the number of problems, 
chief among which is the number of Junior High Schools estab- 



120 Evansville Vocational Survey 

lished which will control the number of pupils to be dealt with. 
Where the numbers are large more lines can be introduced and 
normal sized groups retained. Therefore, the number of different 
practical arts offered to the boys and girls in any of these prevo- 
cational courses is an administrative problem, which of course 
the local authorities will have to solve. 

Junior High School. The Committee feels strongly that before 
erecting the buildings for the new Junior High Schools planned 
for Evansville, the School Board should determine definitely upon 
their policy in regard to the work of these schools : What courses 
are to be offered; what industries and occupations are to be dealt 
with ; and what shops and laboratories are to be planned. There 
is very grave danger that the difference will not be recognized 
in the demands of Junior High Schools from the demands and 
needs of the ordinary elementary school building. Above all 
else the School Board needs to provide for the effective teaching 
of shop and class room work. In every building a class room should 
be located near some shop so as to bring about close arrangement 
between them. Provisions should be made that the size of the 
rooms will be flexible, that they can be increased or contracted 
in size, to meet the requirements of the class rooms and shops, as 
far as practical. 

It is the opinion of the Committee that the organization, devel- 
opment and proper supervision of the prevocational work is one 
of the most important problems in the development of a program 
for vocational education for Evansville. TJiis problem is of equal 
importance in all other Indiana communities. 

To assist Evansville as well as the state as a whole the Com- 
mittee, therefore, recommends that new legislation be secured 
which will authorize and direct the State Board of Education to 
appoint such agents as may be necessary properly to supervise 
and direct this work throughout the state, these agents to work 
under the supervision of the State Director of Vocational Educa- 
tion. 

It is the opinion of the Committee that money spent for the 
supervision of prevocational education in Indiana will net larger 
returns in the development of vocational education than a similar 
amount spent in almost any other way. 

The Senior High School 
The Senior High School of Evansville should be so organized 
as to receive graduates from the Junior High Schools of the type 



Conclusions and Recommendations 121 

recommended for this city and to advance them along the line 
which they are best prepared to follow. 

This implies a system of differentiated courses, which, broadly 
speaking may be classified as follows : 1. Industrial. 2. Agri- 
cultural. 3. Commercial. 4. Household Arts. 5. College and 
Normal Preparatory. The purpose of each course should be 
clearly set forth. This will be conducive to a thorough under- 
standing of the opportunities afforded by the school and will at 
the same time tend to promote intelligent selection of courses on 
the part of pupils. 

The Industrial Course should include : Shop work, varied in 
kind and embracing experiences approximating those of real in- 
dustrial life; drafting, carried on in close relation to the work 
of the shops, and emphasizing those elements and principles vital 
in design and draftsmanship; mathematics and science, stressing 
their application to industrial problems; industrial history; Eng- 
lish; American history and civics. In the last year of the course 
special instruction should be given in fundamental principles of 
business practice, methods of shop organization and management, 
efficiency factors of production, handling of industrial emergen- 
cies and like matters. 

It should be made clear at this point that the Committee thor- 
oughly believes in the continuance of the four-year commercial 
course of study in the Evansville High School. "We desire to 
point out the following reasons for our faith in this four-year 
course: (1) Of all the fields of vocational training to-day below 
college grade, a general education is most necessary to the largest 
success in business and commerce. (2) Undoubtedly the graduates 
of the four-year commercial course will on the whole make a far 
greater success in business life than the graduates of the short 
courses of the private business colleges or the graduates of the 
two-year commercial courses in high schools. The reason for this 
is that the boys and girls who pursue a four-year course are the 
better selected group, they have more ambition and more persis- 
tence. They also have a broader general education which they 
will use over and over again in their life work. Experience shows 
that as a group they have more resourcefulness, more initiative 
and more promise of growth for the future. (3) This is entirely 
aside from the other general proposition that wherever possible 
boys and girls should finish the high school course anyhow. 



122 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The Committee believes that what' we need with our four- 
year commercial courses everywhere is not a shortening of the 
time but the enrichment of the work to include from time to time, 
as business demands it, training in modern business practices, 
machines and devices, and an elementary knowledge of modern 
business problems. 

It is recognized, however, that this truth is not at present 
sufficiently appreciated to induce many young people to make 
the necessary sacrifice to take such a long course. Therefore, as a 
temporary compromise, it may be best to offer in addition to 
the four-year commercial course, a special two-year course com- 
posed largely of technical subjects. By so doing, the pupil, with 
little time and money, will be able to prepare for employment to 
a much better degree than is possible in the private schools, and 
what is also of great importance, this course will introduce him 
into the high school atmosphere with the result that in many cases 
he will eventually complete the longer course. Such a concession 
to social and economic conditions will, it is believed, wdiolly justify 
any apparent conflict with good educational practice. 

Salesmanship should be offered as a specialized course. This 
course should cover two years and should include such subjects 
as the following : Business English and correspondence ; business 
writing ; business arithmetic ; personal hygiene ; industrial history ; 
civics; commercial geography emphasizing fibers, textiles and 
clothing; color harmony and application of principles of design 
to merchandising ; art and science of salesmanship and store prac- 
tice. 

In the administration of the industrial as Avell as the agri- 
cultural, commercial and household arts courses, it should be 
borne in mind that pupils may have different objectives. For 
example, some may want to prepare for the building trades in 
the hope of becoming architects, inspectors, construction superin- 
tendents, contractors; others may w r ant to become tool designers, 
or factory foremen in the metal products industries; others may 
have ambition to prepare themselves to fill such positions as head 
bookkeeper, sales manager, office manager and the like. Accord- 
ingly, within the limits of the facilities of the school, pupils should 
be permitted to specialize, in the last year of the course at least, 
along those lines which afford the largest experience in the par- 
ticular field of industrial or practical arts for which they arc aim- 
ing to prepare themselves. 



Conclusions and Recommendations 123 

Suggestions relative to the courses in agriculture and house- 
hold arts are rendered unnecessary inasmuch as many desirable 
changes already have been made in these courses and others are 
contemplated. 

The effectiveness of an educational institution must be meas- 
ured very largely by the successes or failures of its graduates. 
It is important, therefore, for the high school to follow up its 
graduates and to keep a record of their achievements. This can 
be done by a special committee appointed from the faculty. It 
should be the business of this committee to get in touch with 
employers likely to require the services of the school's graduates; 
to familiarize themselves with the personal qualifications and 
kinds of experience and training required for success in various 
occupations; to secure and record information bearing upon the 
nature of employment and character of service of each graduate ; 
and finally to try to assist misfits to obtain employment more in 
keeping with their inclinations and abilities. 

The Committee is of the opinion that industrial and agricul- 
tural courses are not likely to be developed to the point of their 
maximum effectiveness and efficiency in the present high school 
building. Experience goes to prove that industrial courses of 
the type recommended succeed best under conditions which reflect 
fairly well the atmosphere and activities of modern business and 
industry and that such conditions require shops, laboratories, 
scientific and mechanical equipment of a very different type from 
that available in the average composite type of high school. 
Equipment and building alone, however, will not suffice to impress 
pupils with the realities of the work-a-day world. Their efforts 
must be directed by teachers of trained intelligence and of wide 
and varied experience in productive work. 

Believing that it is the desire of the Board of Education of 
Evansville to keep step with the best modern educational prac- 
tice, the Committee recommends that in the near future serious 
consideration be given to planning a separate building or an 
addition to the present building, especially designed for purposes 
of technical education. 

The Industrial or Trade School Group 

The Survey uncovered in Evansville the need for courses two 
years in length for boys generally over 14 years of age who de- 
sire to remain in school until they are 16 and before entering 



124 Evansvillb Vocational Survey 

upon their wage-earning career. This need was shown to exist 
in the following lines : Woodworking, elementary machine shop 
practice, sheet metal, printing, gas engine and automobile work, 
electrical work and possibly plumbing and steamfitting. It does 
not appear to the Committee that the demands for this kind of. 
training will come from a sufficient number of boys in these lines 
to justify the establishment of a separate school in a separate 
building for giving the work. The Committee believes that this 
problem will best be met in the way described below. 

The plan for the prevocational training in the Junior High 
School for Evansville provides for two years of training in dif- 
ferent manual arts so that boys may be able at the beginning 
of the 9th year to specialize in one trade. (See the text on the 
Junior High School, Part 1, page 17.) This 9th year may be 
regarded as the first year of industrial or vocational school work, 
two years in length, the dominating purpose of which is to fit 
pupils for successful work in the trade which the pupil has 
elected. Doubtless some of these boys will wish to remain through 
a tenth year and take additional training for the same trade be- 
fore being placed in industry. These two years, therefore, the 
9th or last year of the Junior High School course in the manual 
arts and a 10th year built upon it would serve the need of spe- 
cific industrial or vocational trade courses for the city of Evans- 
ville. 

The large advantages of this plan are these : 1. The expense 
attached to the erecting of a separate building will be avoided. 
2. The same equipment and facilities could be used. 3. The same 
teachers could be utilized, also the same organization and admin- 
istrative machinery. 4. There would be no break occasioned by 
the shifting of pupils from one building to another at the close 
of the 9th year. 5. Two -institutions contending for the same 
pupils would be avoided. 

If such industrial and trade school work is carried on in 
Evansville, at least half of the time of the pupils during these 
two years should be devoted to the shop work of a particular 
trade. About 35 per cent of the remaining time would be given 
to related technical instruction in mathematics, drawing and sci- 
ence, and 15 per cent to such academic subjects as English, science 
and industrial history. 

It would be the duty of the school to place its pupils in the 
trade for which each had been trained at the close of the second 



Conclusions and Recommendations 125 

year. Attention is called to the need for establishing trade and 
educational agreements with the trades for the placing of these 
boys. These agreements are discussed in full in Part II, page 31, of 
this Report where the general principles which should underlie 
these agreements and the placing of these pupils in industry are 
set forth. 

Vocational Training in Evening Classes 

To meet the needs of persons who are already engaged in 
productive callings in Evansville, the city should establish evening 
classes of the trade extension kind. Trade extension evening 
classes are those which take older boys and men who are already 
employed and give to them instruction in shop processes which 
they have no opportunity to learn in their daily work, or the 
related material in mathematics, drawing, science, trade knowl- 
edge, art and technique which they need for a mastery of their 
work to fit for promotion and a better wage. 

The Indiana State Law provides state aid for this kind of 
evening classes only. If the city of Evansville wishes to operate 
evening trade preparatory classes it must do so entirely at its 
own expense. The Survey uncovered a reaL demand on the part 
of the workers for trade extension evening classes. 

The Survey did not disclose any demand for trade preparatory 
classes. The General Survey Committee is a unit in its belief that 
in this work trade preparatory classes are a sad waste of public 
money. The evening classes meet about 100 nights a year if 
the students attend four nights a week. If they attend two 
nights a week, they have an opportunity to be present about fifty 
sessions for instruction. The attempt to take, say, a clerk or 
stenographer or wagon driver off the street, and put him into 
the evening classes in order to learn a trade always meets with 
failure. 

They get no day practice in the courses which give them 
any help worth while in their calling. Fifty nights practice in 
shop processes are equivalent to six days of 8 hours each in the 
course of the year. Such a course cannot give the related history 
bearing on the work of the trade since, it is assumed, they know 
nothing about the trade and have no experience as a background 
on which mathematics, drawing or the science or art relating to 
it can be taught. 

Furthermore, the attempt to teach journeymen and appren- 
tices in the same class with novices is bound to be disastrous. 



126 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Such a class has no common background of experience to which 
appeal may be made. If the teacher attempts to instruct one 
group, he must neglect the other group. Tradesmen will not 
attend such classes. If they do enroll, they soon drop out. This 
is the experience of the entire country. 

In practically all the occupations with which the Survey dealt 
there certainly were no good reasons disclosed for establishing 
evening trade preparatory classes. There are boys and men 
who want to acquire experience in handling materials and who 
have an inclination to attend night school to study sheet metal, 
hammered brass products, etc. Evening classes for those per- 
sons, not employed in a trade and who do not expect to follow a 
trade, are really recreational classes. They should be so named 
and conducted separately and be kept apart from the evening 
trade extension or vocational classes described above. 

Furthermore, the demands for training of men who are already 
employed in an occupation and who want such help should be 
granted before any public money is employed in attempting to 
deal with novices through the evening school instruction. All 
experience goes to show that money spent on evening school 
instruction for trade workers, from the standpoint of improved 
industrial efficiency at the present time, is more important in 
its results than money spent in any other way. 

All the foregoing considerations point to the following recom- 
mendations on the part of the Committee for the Evansville sit- 
uation : 

1. The most important evening school work to be given in 
Evansville is that of trade extension courses to meet the needs 
of youths and men already employed as wage-earners. 

2. This field is so large and so undeveloped that the city of 
Evansville can well afford to spend all the money it has avail- 
able in the next few years for evening classes. 

3. Evansville will fail, as other places are failing, and will 
continue to fail, if any attempt is made to mix the novice and 
the trade worker together in the same classes for instruction. 

4. If trade preparatory classes are to be given for the benefit 
of the novice they should be organized and conducted separately 
from trade extension evening classes. 

5. The city of Evansville should clearly recognize that such 
trade preparatory classes are recreational in character and have 



Conclusions and Recommendations 127 

little, if any, trade significance, for most kinds of employment at 
least. 

6. Finally, the city of Evansville from every point of view 
will act most wisely in using the funds derived from the state 
for evening classes in the support of trade extension work. 

The situation with the work of girls and women is somewhat 
different. There is need in Evansville for trade extension classes 
for such women 's work as millinery and dressmaking. This should 
be given in separate classes for women already employed in the 
trades. 

The same crafts, however, which women carry on in the shops 
are practiced in the home. There is always a demand in the 
community for evening classes in household arts such as the city 
is now conducting. These classes, known as home-making classes, 
receive state aid to the same extent as trade extension classes 
for women in the same lines. But the two should be carried on 
separately, in separate classes, as the State Board has wisely 
required. 

Instruction in home-making classes should have in view always 
the use of the information in the home while the trade extension 
classes should have in view always the use of the information in 
the trade. Courses should be drawn up accordingly. 

As a result of the Survey, the General Survey Committee rec- 
ommends the following program for which a demand was uncov- 
ered by the Survey : 

Evening courses for journeymen, apprentices, and foremen. 
Carpentry, plumbing, steamfitting, sheet metal, cement and con- 
crete work (colored), woodworking in interior trim and finish, 
stationary engineering, cabinet making, mill room work, lecture 
courses for foremen in modern methods applicable to the furni- 
ture industry; cost accounting; period furniture, design, color 
harmony and the use of stains; printing, presswork; machine 
shop practice and theory; railroad mechanics; salesmanship for 
department and specialty stores; foundry snd sheet metal work 
for the stove industry ; courses for men laundry workers ; courses 
for adult workers or foremen in the carriage and the mechanical 
trades. 

Courses for colored workers. Carpentry, concrete, brick-laying, 
janitor and care-taking; auto driving; waiting on table and 
sewing. 



128 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Evening courses for women and older girls. Home-making 
courses in cooking; sewing, garment-making, bat trimming; busi- 
ness or commercial courses for the novice ; recreational courses in 
gymnastics and health and hygiene; evening extension courses 
in dressmaking; machine operating and garment making; evening 
preparatory courses for prospective nurses in dietetics and cook- 
ing; home-making courses for colored girls in sewing, cooking, 
laundry work and care of the house and care of the children. 

The evening school work in practical arts of all kinds should 
be under the direct supervision of a director or Assistant Super- 
intendent for Vocational Education who will be charged with 
the responsibility of organizing, developing and supervising the 
work. The Committee believes that it is a mistake to attempt to 
offer every kind or type of class in the same building in the 
city of Evansville. It would be better to arrange for trade exten- 
sion classes and all other evening classes, as near as possible to 
the homes of the group of persons it is planned to serve. For 
example: Evening instruction adapted to the needs of the em- 
ployees in the L. & N. Railroad shops should be provided in close 
proximity to those shops and the employees' homes. 

It would be far better, particularly in the case of classes of 
small registration, to give them near the center of the city where 
there would be ready and equal access to all the members of the 
class rather than to open duplicate classes with small attendance 
in every center on the theory that each center must be a 
complete unit in itself. It would be far better to have a careful 
placement of these classes, as described above, with well qualified, 
well paid teachers and a suitable equipment for carrying on the 
work. 

One of the greatest mistakes made in evening school teaching 
in this country is the failure to provide the teachers with the 
necessary apparatus, drawings, charts, models, machines and 
all modern appurtenances for instructional purposes. 

In order to secure the best results, the man employed as 
teacher in the evening school, and the woman also, should be 
required to attend evening school for a number of weeks in ad- 
vance of the opening of their classes in order to receive training 
in how to teach. They should be paid for this attendance the 
same as if they were teaching classes. It must be remembered 
that men who attempt to teach the trades know the trade but 
generally have had no experience in teaching. Another way, per- 



Conclusions and Recommendations 129 

haps not as good as the former, is to arrange a night at frequent 
intervals, either weekly or bi-weekly, during the evening sehool 
year when teaehers may be gathered together for training in 
serviee. 

These teachers as well as those employed in day vocational 
work, should be gathered together by the Director of Vocational 
Education, who should be held responsible for developing a com- 
petent force of teachers. The Committee believes one of the most 
helpful things for the progress of vocational education in Indiana 
would be the employment by the State Board of Instruction, at 
the earliest possible date, of a competent agent to travel the length 
and breadth of Indiana, giving his entire time to the training of 
teachers of vocational subjects. 

The best results in evening school work will be obtained, if 
the week just prior to the opening of the evening school be set 
aside for the preliminary registration of students. Teachers should 
be assigned to the registration room during this week for the 
purpose of meeting students, talking over their work and ambi- 
tions, giving them suggestions, and assigning them to proper 
classes where they can get what they need. 

Courses naturally should bear on different phases of the 
man's work, for example, mathematics for carpenters, sketching 
and plan reading for carpenters, stair building for carpenters and 
inside finish and trimming for carpenters. These courses should 
follow each other in consecutive order so that a man from the 
trade may either come in and take all of the courses, or if he finds 
that he has a particular need for one of them or does not desire 
or need all of them, he can start in on the brief course either 
at the beginning of the year, or at the time in the year when it is 
reached. Certificates should be given to men for the completion 
of these brief courses. At the same time general courses made 
up of all the brief or unit courses, which in the opinion of the 
trade a man should have to be fully equipped for his work, should 
be organized. Diplomas for the completion - of these general 
courses, which should require from two to three years of evening 
school attendance for their completion, should be given. 

The detailed suggestions as to courses of study for every class 
have been made by the Committee in the very great press of other 
work in the Indiana Survey at the urgent insistence of the Evans- 
ville authorities. These are given in Appendix I, page 491 
to 497. Here again the Committee while holding strongly for 

9-5543 



130 Evansville Vocational Survey 

the use of the unit course and the general course and the certif- 
icate and the diploma as described in the foregoing discussion 
of the evening school problems, recognizes that there will also be 
differences of opinion as to the content and details of such courses. 
Hence, the information given in the Appendix is offered not as 
recommendations but as suggestions by the Committee as to what 
might well be taught to meet the needs of groups uncovered by 
the Survey. Here again, any outline that is proposed must be 
adjusted to actual conditions as they arise in the organization and 
operation of vocational classes in Evansville. 

Agriculture in the Evansville Public Schools 

The Committee recommends that in organizing and developing 
agricultural instruction in Evansville, the school authorities keep 
in mind the following facts : 

First : Only a small per- cent, comparatively speaking, of the 
boys in Evansville will follow the occupation of farming of any 
kind. 

Second : Of those who select farming as an occupation, only a 
small number will engage in either grain, livestock or general 
farming. The majority will specialize in either market gardening, 
truck gardening, poultry husbandry, floriculture, apiculture or 
some such type of intensive farming which requires a relatively 
small plot of ground. In some cases a combination of these special 
lines will be made, no doubt. 

Third : While comparatively few will select farming as a voca- 
tion, yet such types of farming as poultry raising, floriculture, 
apiculture, landscape gardening and home gardening are admi- 
rabty adapted to the purpose of avocations for men who engage 
in professional or industrial pursuits. Not only may these courses 
be used as a means of training in desirable and profitable avo- 
cations, but they would serve as finding courses in the Junior 
High Schools. Furthermore, they are excellent cultural subjects 
if properly taught. 

Fourth : Work in agriculture for girls should be offered as a 
part of the courses in home-making, not with the idea that agri- 
cultural pursuits will be followed on a commercial basis, but 
will be used as a means of contributing to economical household 
management. 

Fifth : The city of Evansville should not attempt to give 
courses for preparing either city or country boys for the occupa- 



CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS 131 

tion of either general, grain or livestock farming — types of farm- 
ing that require extensive areas of land and expensive equipment. 
This work should be done by the township, and the agricultural 
department or school should be located in the country where ade- 
quate facilities are at hand for gaining practical experience in 
the occupation. 

In view of the above facts the Committee recommends that 
the city of Evansville provide in her Junior High Schools instruc- 
tion in one or more of the following subjects : Market garden- 
ing, truck gardening, floriculture and poultry-keeping. Work in 
soils, entomology, marketing, accounts, management and canning 
fruits and vegetables will be included in one or more of the above 
courses. 

Should the results of these finding courses in the Junior High 
Schools clearly indicate an urgent need for advanced and special 
training in types of farming like the above, then additional 
instruction in this direction should be provided through classes 
in the Senior High School. 

The Committee thoroughly believes that even in a city as large 
as Evansville wherever any group of boys desire to take training 
beyond the prevocational courses which will advance them in 
the direction of some useful pursuit on the farm, that it becomes 
the duty of the public school authorities of the community to 
offer such advanced and special courses for the purpose of meeting 
their needs, provided the conditions are such that the work can 
be carried on successfully. 

Agricultural instruction in either the finding courses in the 
Junior High School or in the special and advanced courses of 
the Senior High School should include a combination of study 
and practice. 

The courses should be organized on the basis of personal 
problems of the pupils pursuing the subject. For example, if 
the subject be market gardening, each pupil must study the sub- 
ject as it bears on the cultivation of his own garden. Clearly 
then, a pupil who cannot obtain for his individual use a garden 
plot ought not to be held eligible to enroll for this work. Prob- 
ably it will be necessary for each boy to have, as a part of his 
equipment, a cold frame and a hot bed. Of necessity, he must 
have the proper equipment for cultivating his garden. If the 
work is given on this personal interest basis, the boy will gain 



132 Evansville Vocational Survey 

information that will serve a very practical purpose in his life 
experience. 

It is not necessary that the school supply an elaborate equip- 
ment in grounds and laboratory apparatus for purposes of further- 
ing instruction in agricultural subjects. It is desirable that a 
small plot of ground be available for laboratory demonstrations in 
seedbed preparation, depth of planting, methods of cultivation 
and like operations. If there is need for pruning or spraying 
equipment, spray materials, lime, fertilizers, seeds to be used 
in demonstration exercises, they should be supplied by the school. 
The school should furnish an adequate reference library. 

The teacher who is to administer these courses must have the 
equivalent of a technical training furnished by a four-year course 
in a standard agricultural college. He must have had practical 
farm experience sufficient to enable him to teach these courses 
in an intensely practical way. He must be qualified to deal with 
boys and their parents in a genuinely sympathetic manner. He 
should have had teaching experience in which he has clearly dem- 
onstrated a practical knowledge of the principles of teaching. 

The necessity for keeping careful records of students engaged 
in agricultural work of any kind goes without saying. A record 
card, prepared for use in Agricultural schools and classes by the 
State Board of Education and containing many excellent features, 
is submitted as a part of these recommendations. (See Appendix 
II, page 499.) 

Vocational Education for the Colored People of Evansville 

The present European war has already suspended the tide of 
foreign immigration to this country. This condition will produce, 
if it has not already produced, a lack not only of unskilled labor, 
but of the semi-skilled labor which was formerly supplied so 
largely from Europe. The marked exodus of negroes from the 
South to northern cities seems to show that we are looking 
already to our colored workers to fill employments formerly filled 
by white immigrants. 

Indeed, it appears that the negro is the only source of supply 
from which to draw. If this be true, then his training, partic- 
ularly for occupations which traditionally were filled by the white 
man, becomes of increasing importance both to the community 
and to the negro himself. Every consideration of wisdom and of 
justice demands that the colored population shall be given the 



Conclusions and Recommendations 133 

occupational education which for the mass of the race, is pecu- 
liarly the open road to efficiency and happiness. 

It is greatly to the credit of Evansville that, in the past, 
liberal provisions have been made for negro schools. Indeed, 
Evansville is probably unique among the communities on the Ohio 
river in this respect. So true is this that the colored high schools 
of the city in many respects compared favorably with the white 
high schools of the city and in fact with many of the best second- 
ary schools of the state. 

Not less commendable was the local interest shown in the 
attempt of the Survey to determine what could be done to improve 
the education of the negro. The Educational Committee of the 
Chamber of Commerce agreed with representative colored organ- 
izations that "the negro population of the city is in precisely that- 
state of development in which vocational education would prob- 
ably be of the greatest utility to them and indirectly to the com- 
munity", (See page 479). Because of this favorable attitude 
Evansviile is a particularly desirable place in which to establish 
vocational schools and classes to meet the requirements of colored 
workers. 

There can be no doubt that the high percentage of illiteracy 
among the adult negroes of the city has been a great handicap to 
them in their work and in their ambitions. The Findings point 
out that in 1910, 18.7 per cent, or almost one out of every five of 
the colored population over 10 years of age, was unable to read 
and write. This condition is characteristic of towns and cities 
along the Ohio river. 

Illiteracy is due in part to the lack of real educational 
opportunity. Happily, the situation is improving somewhat be- 
cause the younger generation of negroes attends school more reg- 
ularly. The figures gathered by the Survey seem to show that 
colored children from year to year are remaining longer in school. 

Evansville should give special attention to evening classes in 
reading, writing and arithmetic for adult negroes. Aside from 
their effect upon his character nothing probably would improve 
his occupational efficiency more than an elementary knowledge 
of these subjects. 

While only one out of 1,117 colored readers of works in the 
Public Library was an employed child, only thirty-nine out of 
14,244 white readers was a child engaged in wage-earning. It is 



134 Evansville Vocational Survey 

certain that the Public Library could accomplish a great deal by 
expanding its service to the youthful wage workers of both races, 
but particularly to the colored race where the opportunities for 
good reading matter are not good. 

The problem of vocational education for the colored people 
of Evansville requires a frank recognition of the economic instruc- 
tion of the race in the city. The purpose of vocational education 
is to help the worker improve his present condition by making 
him more efficient in his present employment and by fitting him 
for something better. In Evansville, vocational education is to 
take the negro where the Survey found him and give him what- 
ever helpful preparation is needed for his present employments 
and for those employments, most of them semi-skilled in charac- 
ter, which are gradually opening up to him in the city. 

It would be a waste, both of public money and of the ambi- 
tions and time of the negroes of Evansville to offer courses of 
instruction fitting them for occupations which they cannot, be- 
cause of a want of previous experience, follow at the present 
time. It would be civic injustice and folly not to provide every 
facility for training them in every line where they have gained 
a foothold, and not to follow them with the helpful service of 
vocational classes into every occupation to which they find en- 
trance. This has been the point of view of these recommendations. 

It is highly probable that under present conditions in Evans- 
ville it would be possible to offer the Junior High School work to 
colored pupils without the erection of any additional buildings by 
reorganizing the work either in the upper grades of the elementary 
schools or what seems more feasible still the Clark High Schools. 

In this Junior High School the day should be lengthened to 
six and a half hours. In addition to their work in regular studies 
the pupils should give, during the 7th and 8th years at least, two 
and a half hours of each day to practical shop work and during 
the 9th year three and a half hours. The arithmetic, drawing and 
elementary science work, particularly in the 9th year, should be 
closely connected with the shop work. 

Because of the kind of opportunities before them, colored 
boys, during the first two years, should be given a chance to get 
practical training in these lines at least: Concrete construction, 
cement finishing, bricklaying, plastering, carpentry, painting, tin 
and sheet metal work. 



Conclusions and Recommendations 135 

In the 9th year, the colored boy should be permitted to pursue 
any one of these employments for the entire year, so that he may 
acquire definite wage-earning assets. Should he desire to continue 
his industrial preparation another year, a 10th year should be 
added to his course to give him additional training for the same 
employment which he practiced and studied in his 9th year. 

In this way the industrial course would serve a double purpose. 
The 7th and 8th years would comprise prevocational training in 
the industrial arts and help him to choose what he wishes to do. 
The 9th and 10th years would comprise an industrial course fitting 
him for successful wageearning in some one trade or occupation. 

In like manner the colored girls in the 7th and 8th years would 
receive prevocational instruction in such household arts as cook- 
ing, sewing, laundry work, care of the house, care of the sick and 
home sanitation and decoration. During the 9th and 10th years 
they should be permitted to emphasize the work which they desire 
to follow for a livelihood. 

The committee does not believe that at the present time any 
attempt should be made to establish a technical course in the 
colored high school. By technical course is meant a course which 
will prepare colored youth for positions of leadership in industry. 
There is no demand for such a course on the part of the colored 
boys, nor could they obtain such positions, however successfully 
trained they might be. Such a course will not be feasible until the 
negro has won a position of recognized journeymanship in the 
skilled trades of the city. While it is doubtful whether the col- 
ored population of the city, on account of its size, will ever sup- 
port a specialized course in the colored high school, the committee 
believes that, should a group of colored youth at some future time 
ask for it and should the school authorities find it would lead to 
better things, then the course unquestionablv should be offered. 

From the information gathered by the Survey, at least the 
following evening classes for negroes should be established: 
Auto mechanics, bricklaying, carpentry, concrete work, janitor 
and care-taking, cooking, laundering and serving. 

Trade and Educational Agreements 

The Committee approves most heartily the trade and educa- 
tional agreements that were worked out by the Survey in con- 
ference with employers and employees and representatives of 
the schools of Evansville and which are described in detail in 



136 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Part II, pages 31-34, the Findings of the Report. Steps already 
taken seem to promise part-time schooling nnder such agreements 
in the manufacture of buggies, gas engines and furniture, in steam 
fitting, sheet metal, retail salesmanship and printing composition 
and press work. 

The limited time available during the four months the field 
work of the Survey was being conducted in Evansville did not 
afford an opportunity to complete this work. But the excellent 
beginnings made by the Survey show clearly that co-operation 
between the schools and different employments for the training 
of the worker can be accomplished if the task is handled properly. 
Employers and employees are interested and ready to help. Trade 
understandings made in advance of any attempt to establish 
classes not only are the best means to arouse the interest and 
obtain the help of the vocations themselves, but under a voluntary 
plan, at least, are the only sure way in which any scheme can 
be established and operated successfully. 

Understandings between the vocations and the schools for the 
education of workers are a new thing in Evansville, as elsewhere. 
They will be a matter of slow growth, for they will require time 
for the education of all concerned as to their value and necessity. 
The Survey has broken the ground and seems to have broken it 
well. It remains for the Evansville school authorities to seize 
the advantage at once. 

Part-time Classes 

The present Indiana statutes regarding vocational education 
grant aid to the extent of two-thirds the salaries of instructors 
in vocational subjects taught in part-time as well as day and 
evening industrial classes. The same statutes empower the Evans- 
ville Board as well as all other local boards of education to estab- 
lish a part-time class giving instruction relating to any given 
trade, industry or occupation and to require the attendance upon 
the class of all youths of the community over 14 and under 10 
years of age who are employed in the trade, industry or occu- 
pation. 

At the present time, there are in Indiana six part-time ehisses 
established under the Indiana law. Thus far, no local board of 
education has invoked the compulsory provision of the statute 
relating to the part-time schools. 



Conclusions and Recommendations 137 

Indeed, as has been already pointed out, it is the failure of 
the local option measure, for reasons which need not be given 
here, to secure part-time classes, that has led the Committee to 
advocate the passage by the next session of the Legislature of a 
state-wide compulsory continuation school act for all children over 
14 and under 16 years of age who are working under a permit. 
The provisions in this measure should be broad enough to enable 
local schools anywhere to give any kind of instruction which the 
welfare of these permit-workers may demand, general, prevocational 
or vocational, and state aid should be granted to stimulate and 
encourage local committees to push this new service vigorously. 

The Public Library and Vocational Education 

The findings of the Survey show a commendable activity on the 
part of the Evansville Public Library and its various branches. 
Particularly gratifying is the effort which seems to have been 
made to reach both young and adult working people. (See Find- 
ings on Library. Part 3, page 90.) 

The very large number of permit-workers, both boys and girls, 
who are taking books from the Public Library suggests the idea 
that the Public Library authorities should study the interests 
and needs of these permit-workers in order to learn: (1) To 
increase the number of such children who patronize the library; 

(2) to guide their interest in reading along the most helpful lines; 

(3) to secure the books containing useful information which will 
best meet their requirements. 

The steps should be taken at once for the development of more 
extensive library facilities along the trade and technical lines. 
Different industries and organizations within industries should be 
asked to recommend lists of books desirable and helpful from the 
standpoint of the occupations themselves. Trade and technical 
catalogues are readily available and purchases from them should 
be made on the recommendations of the men employed in the 
trades. Not only are books needed, but pamphlets and the stand- 
ard trade and technical magazines for each vocation should be 
installed. 

This material will be of two general kinds: First, inform- 
ational; that is giving information of a readable and interesting 
kind concerning material, tools, machines, processes, devices, dis- 
cussions ; and, second, reference material to which those interested 



138 Evansville Vocational Survey 

in more thoroughgoing study or desiring information for special 
purposes may readily refer. Workmen from the trades should 
be encouraged to use this material in the fullest possible way. 
Indeed, much of it might be sent direct to the establishment, the 
employer being responsible for its safe-keeping. Lists of new 
accessions of publications of any measure of interest to those 
engaged in the occupations and trades should be posted in the 
plants and in public places. A system of postal card notices should 
be used to notify workmen who have shown special interest in the 
past of such new accessions. 

1. The Public Library deposit stations should be placed in 
every school more than twelve blocks from a branch library. 

2. The practice of opening these stations in the evening should 
be extended to adults as rapidly as the interest of the neighborhood 
warrants. 

3. The present system of home visiting should be extended. 

4. The selection of books should be kept up to the highest 
possible standard in the endeavor to stimulate interest along edu- 
cational, industrial and inspirational lines. To furnish books of 
practical value to every citizen, emphasis should be placed upon 
vocational and technical collections. 

5. The Industrial Station work should be developed in the 
immediate future and an effort made to interest factory employees 
in reading and study along vocational lines. Factories and shops 
should be utilized, so far as practicable, as deposit stations. 

6. The library should be made to function with each voca- 
tional class in the schools so as to encourage the habit of securing 
vocational helps from print. 

7. The library should be made a bureau for vocational guid- 
ance information. 

8. The library should be advertised in practical fashion amoug 
the workers in all lines so as to enable them to see the advantages 
of print. 

Financing Vocational Education in Evansville 

From the tables shown in the findings prepared by the Survey 
it appears that Evansville collected in 1914 for school purposes 
the sum of $405,818. Of this amount $261,639 was collected by 
taxation and $135,216 was obtained from subventions and grants. 



Conclusions and Recommendations 139 

Thirty-three and one-third per cent of the total amount expended 
was obtained from sources other than taxation. 

Evansville spent in 1914-15 $4.45 per capita. In this expend- 
iture the city was thirty-fifth among the sixty American cities 
between 50,000 and 100,000 population. The per capita cost borne 
by taxation was much lower in Evansville than in other cities 
of the same class because of the city's fortunate possession of 
valuable school lands. 

The authorized tax levy for general educational purposes is 
81.00 per hundred dollars. Evansville 's present educational tax 
levy is 70 cents on the hundred dollars. The unused tax levy, 
therefore, amounts to 30 cents on the hundred dollars. The assessed 
valuation of Evansville is $44,856,040, and the unused tax levy 
for general educational purposes, if applied, would render a return 
of $134,550 annually. 

The vocational education law authorizes the levy of 10 cents 
on the hundred dollars for vocational education. This alone w r ould 
produce revenue amounting to $44,856 on the assessed valuation 
of Evansville. Since vocational education may be maintained by 
the regular school fund tax or by the special vocational tax or 
by a combination of the two, it appears that without any further 
authorization Evansville is able to raise by increasing the general 
tax and from the vocational tax for the benefit of vocational 
education the sum of $179,406 annually on the present valuation. 

From these facts it is evident that Evansville is in an enviable 
position to carry out the program for vocational education outlined 
in this Report. 



V. Findings as to Industries 



I. FURNITURE AND WOODWORKING INDUSTRIES 



1. General Findings 

Importance of the industries. Chief among the industries of 
Evansville are furniture manufacturing and woodworking, to 
which, more than to any other lines of industrial enterprise, the 
city owes its importance as a manufacturing center. The group 
of furniture and woodworking industries constitutes the largest 
single unit of industry in Evansville. It embraces thirty-seven 
establishments, which employ approximately 2,491 workers, of 
whom 1,801 are employed in the furniture industry, 225 in the 
lumber mills, 200 in the planing mills, 100 in the tank and seat 
factories, 75 in the lumber factories, 60 in the box factory and 
30 in the casket factory. It will be obvious from these figures 
that in this group of closely allied industries, furniture manu- 
facturing is predominantly important, and in the following 
account consideration is given to the conditions and require- 
ments of this industry in somewhat greater detail than is done for 
other industries in the group. Conditions which are peculiar 
to the woodworking industries, as distingushed from the furni- 
ture industry, are, however, indicated in separate accounts of 
the equipment, process and work of each industry. 

Product. The products of this group of industries are worked 
up from the logs brought into Evansville mills, in which for 
the most part, the lumber cut is hardwood. Oak and gum, 
and some walnut, elm and poplar are sawed. Some of this 
lumber is brought to the mills by raft from Kentucky and 
Indiana river towns, and the remainder is shipped in by rail. 

In the planing mills interior finish is often built ready to set 
in place. The products of these mills include lumber; sectional 
furniture; office, school and church furniture; store and office 
fixtures ; interior cabinet work ; show eases ; bank and bar fixtures ; 
sash, doors, frames; boards, hardwood flooring, mouldings; and 
various other wood specialties. Most of the product of the plan- 
ing mills is sold to the local furniture factories after being air 
seasoned in the yards. Several of these establishments confine 
their output to one or more standard articles, while some of the 
larger plants combine a number of the above lines. 

141 



142 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Veneers are cut by special machinery in two establishments, 
and whether the veneer is sawed, sliced or rotary cut, there is 
usually a strong demand for it. 

Furniture factories manufacture a wide range of products. 
These include complete sets of kitchen, dining room, bedroom 
and hall furniture. Specifically the Evansville products embrace, 
among other articles, kitchen cabinets, tables, and cupboards; 
dining room chairs, tables, buffets, and china cabinets ; beds, bed- 
room dressers and wardrobes; library tables; roller-top office, 
school and typewriter desks ; besides certain lines of metal furni- 
ture. Several factories specialize on office desks, tables, chairs, 
case goods, bedroom furniture, or kitchen cabinets. Others make 
two or three special classes of furniture in the same factory, 
and in still other instances, two or more grades of the same 
class of furniture are made. A tendency to specialize in car-lot 
orders is in evidence, and some factories build furniture in lots 
of four hundred or more of the same model. Very little furni- 
ture is constructed to order in single pieces. 

The manufacture of any one of these principal classes of 
product might constitute a community industry. Cities larger 
than Evansville are, in fact, industrially devoted almost exclu- 
sively to the manufacture of one product, that one product being 
more simple and definite in character than any one class of the 
products enumerated above, and requiring in its production in 
the main only simple routine, unskilled labor. 

Standardization of product. Of no one of the principal 
products of the furniture industry in Evansville is it true that 
either the processes or the product has been, or that it could 
advantageously be, completely or finally standardized. It is 
undoubtedly true of certain of these products, of which the 
common kitchen table may perhaps be taken as an example, 
that they have been standardized, and are manufactured in large 
quantities, for a considerable period without any material change 
of design. But it does not at all follow, necessarily, even in the 
case of so simple a product as a kitchen table, that the design 
or pattern which has been adopted is the final and perfect thing 
in kitchen tables, and that no improvement in it is possible. On 
the contrary, it is entirely conceivable, that a genius for design- 
ing kitchen tables will appear in the industry tomorrow, and 
that his kitchen table, of improved design, will capture the 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 143 

market away from those who continue to manufacture kitchen 
tables according to the traditional standardized pattern. It is 
important for Evansville, and especially for the Evansville manu- 
facturers of kitchen tables, that this genius shall appear in 
Evansville and in their own factories, and that his improved 
design shall bear an Evansville trade-mark. It is, therefore, 
important for Evansville, that it shall make the conditions obtain- 
ing in the city favorable to the development of initiative and 
originality in the production of even such simple products as 
kitchen tables. 

But the kitchen table cannot fairly be taken as a typical 
product of the furniture industry. In it the opportunity for 
expressing originality is perhaps at the minimum point. In the 
manufacture of other products — of kitchen cabinets, dining room, 
hall and library furniture, for example — although these also 
may be and are to a certain degree standardized, the opportunity 
for diversity in design and for improvement of patterns is indefi- 
nitely great, and the manufacturer who confines his output to 
an unvarying standardized pattern for any considerable period 
is certain, sooner or later, to encounter in the market, someone 
who has followed the wiser course of departing from traditional 
standards, and of improving his patterns to keep pace with 
advancing civilization, which demands from year to year finer 
designs in furniture as in other commodities. 

In the planing mills, the work is almost entirely done to 
special order, and from plans and specifications. Very little 
stock is made up in advance of order. In box factories, a stand- 
ard product is turned out, and the work is done mostly by con- 
tract. In the tank and seat establishments, some of the products 
can be made and kept in stock in advance of orders, to be sold 
through jobbers. 

Characteristics of the industries. These industries are pre- 
eminently machine industries. Comparatively little even of the 
special order work is entirely hand work. Generally it is true 
that the workers must have acquired facility in the operation 
of one or more woodworking machines and a general knowledge 
of these machines is especially necessary for foremen and others 
who have any supervisory functions. The character of the serv- 
ice performed by the workers is largely determined by the 
character of the machines operated and it has been necessary, 



144 Evansville Vocational Survey 

therefore, to include a detailed description of them in the occu- 
pational analyses for these industries. 

Specialization of processes. An enumeration of the principal 
products of the furniture and woodworking industries, as devel- 
oped in Evansville, will indicate the great diversity of processes 
necessarily involved in their production. The tendency in mod- 
ern factory production, namely, to make the worker a part of the 
system, and to relieve him of the necessity of doing more than 
follow the instructions of the foreman, is clearly in evidence in 
these industries, and it may be noted that specialization of 
processes has been, in many branches, carried to such an extreme 
as to eliminate the demand for highly skilled workmen. While 
the immediate economies of such a system are real, it is becom- 
ing apparent that the elimination of skilled labor is bound to 
react upon the industry by depriving it of one factor making 
for progressive development. Specialization itself obviously 
requires that there shall be a larger or smaller group of workers 
in the shop whose expert general knowledge will insure a perfect 
co-ordination of processes. This work of co-ordination becomes 
more difficult in proportion as specialization simplifies the work 
of the individual worker. 

Can the industries be developed? The opportunities for devel- 
opment in these industries are exceptionally great. The products 
are diversified, and there is no other limit to the progressive 
diversification of the product in the future, and for development 
along new lines, except the limit which exists in the condition 
obtaining at the present time, namely, the condition which 
restricts the training of the working force and of the managerial 
force to such training as is incidentally obtained in, and based 
upon, the industry as it has developed in this community in the 
past. 

It is, however, true that the lumber mills are less prosperous 
than they were years ago, and that they only run for short seasons 
to supply the demand. 

As regards the furniture industry, and of other industries 
dependent upon the furniture industry, it is to be noted that devel- 
opment must be competitive. The furniture industry is depend- 
ent, not only upon the absolute efficiency of the management, 
of the foremen and of the workers employed in Evansville, but 
equally upon the efficiency available in other communities. If 



SUMMARY^OF FINDINGS AS TO INDUSTRIES 145 

these other communities at any time develop a degree of effi- 
ciency, higher than that developed in Evansville, the industries 
of Evansville are certain to decline. It is the purpose of voca- 
tional education to create efficiency, and thereby to increase 
the competitive power of the community in which it is established. 
This is a general principle of vocational education, which has 
special application to the furniture industry, because the furni- 
ture industry is essentially a competitive industry established 
in many communities. 

In the case of the furniture industry of Evansville, growth 
in the future will be dependent upon the acquirement of new 
knowledge about the industry as it is carried on in other com- 
munities; the development of more efficient systems of organiza- 
tion; the acquirement of new technical skill on the part of the 
workmen, which will enable them to undertake new lines of work ; 
and finally, upon the capacity of those engaged in the industry 
for taking the initiative in devising, as well as in adopting, new 
systems, new processes, new equipment, and new designs of 
product. 

In a word, the growth of the furniture industry in the future 
will depend largely upon the acquirement of precisely that tech- 
nical knoAvledge and skill and capacity, which cannot be gen- 
erally acquired under conditions as they obtain in Evansville 
at the present time. 

The industry itself can teach those processes of which it has 
made use in the past, and it can, — although it does not now 
efficiently do so,— train the workers to the degree of skill which 
these processes require; but it cannot give any instruction or 
training, except that which is based upon the industry as it is 
carried on in Evansville. The element of progress is, therefore, 
entirely lacking in the industry, and is not supplied by any sys 
tern of vocational or technical training in the public schools. 

While this condition is not peculiar to the furniture industry, 
it may be noted that the growth of the furniture industry is to 
a greater degree than is true of many other industries, dependent 
upon increase of efficiency, diversification or skill, originality 
and initiative. It may be added that growth in the future, to 
a greater degree than has been true in the past, will be dependent 
upon systematic provision in Evansville for the development of 
these qualities, because such provision is now being made in 

10—5543 



146 Evansville Vocational Survey 

every line of enterprise in other industrial centers with which 
Evansville manufacturers must compete. 

If the industry is to prosper, if indeed it is to survive, and 
meet the demands which competition will certainly impose upon 
it, it must undertake the systematic training of both boys and 
men in the process of the entire industry. It must make it pos- 
sible for boys to acquire efficiency in every line where efficiency 
is required for the advancement of the industry. 

Improvement and change of patterns or designs to secure 
greater variety and individuality in product will become more 
necessary in the future as a means of getting and even of holding 
markets. No manufacturer will contend that present designs are 
perfect and finally standardized, nor will it be contended that 
the processes of manufacturing any given line of products have 
been so perfected in Evansville that no improvements which will 
economize labor and expense are possible, or that the physical equip- 
ment of the industry is finally perfected, or so utilized as to obtain 
100 per cent of its potential utility, or that the organization of 
labor, and the apportionment of tasks is in perfect accord with 
modern principles of scientific management. On the contrary, 
it will be readily conceded that material improvement in each 
process, in equipment, and in organization is not only possible, 
but is in fact inevitable, and here again it is essential to the 
prosperity of Evansville that these improvements shall be, if not 
discovered in Evansville, at least immediately adopted by Evans- 
ville establishments. The chief advantage from such improve- 
ments will accrue to the establishment or community in which 
they are originated, and the establishment or community which 
provides most liberally for progressive improvement will enjoy 
the well merited profits of supremacy over its competitors. 

Whatever the conditions obtaining in Evansville at the 
present time, it is certain that those engaged in the furniture 
industry do not intend that that industry shall decline or become 
stationary. It is, on the contrary, their intention that it shall 
be progressive, and this implies that those methods of making 
it progressive, which have been and are being adopted in other 
manufacturing centers, shall be adopted in Evansville. In prac- 
tical terms the question presented to the furniture industry, 
iu the proposal to establish in the public schools vocational courses 
providing for co-operation between the schools and the industry 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 147 

in giving the required training to Evansville youths, is one of 
industrial progress or retrogression. 

Labor supply. Employers have recently awakened to the fact 
that the labor turnover is becoming a very considerable cost 
factor in these industries. Young men are constantly shifting 
from one establishment to another. Moreover, the foreign- 
trained worker, of whom there has been a plentiful supply in 
the past, is rapidly disappearing. This is due, in part, as has 
been noted, to the fact that the processes of the industries have 
been highly specialized and in part to the advent of modern 
woodworking machinery which has, of course, been a condition 
of specialization of processes. 

To a very considerable extent, it is true that the small shops 
serve as feeders for the large shops, when an additional number 
of trained men are required. In a word, the large shops exploit 
the small shops in securing trained men, since the organization 
in the large shops does not, in general, provide training for the 
industry, but only special training for the job. 

In contrast with the woodworking industries, the furniture 
industry is recruited from the lower grades of the public schools. 
Boys leaving school as early as the law permits, enter the industry 
as off-bearers or in other unskilled employments. Of every one 
hundred employed in the furniture factories, twenty-five are 
between the ages of fourteen and twenty. In woodworking estab- 
lishments making interior finish, on the other hand, the ratio 
is not more than four to one hundred ; in the tank and seat manu- 
facturing establishments, not more than eight to one hundred; 
and in the casket and box factories, not more than six. In the 
lumber mills, young workers are seldom found. 

In the planing mills, the Survey found that the most efficient 
employees were those who had worked in the furniture factories, 
and had acquired in these factories some knowledge of the dif- 
ferent processes and machines. ■ There was no disposition in 
evidence on the part of the planing mills employers to take on 
young men, and in fact, the Survey found not more than six or 
eight young men between the ages of 16 and 20 employed in 
these mills. 

The Survey has revealed that boys trained in the shops remain 
only a short time in the establishments where trained. In many 
instances they leave for the larger factories in which they hope 



148 Evansville Vocational Survey 

to secure positions on the pretense of being competent machine 
operators. In other instances, they endeavor to secure employ- 
ment in planing mills, wagon works, or buggy factories, where 
the compensation is greater or where an opportunity to do piece 
work is presented. This fluctuation of the young workers at the 
best does not promote high standards of efficiency of workmen 
in the industry. 

An apprenticeship system in the furniture and woodworking 
industries may be expeeted to decrease the labor turnover; to 
make the larger units of industry less dependent on the smaller; 
and to make the apprentices more contented, more interested in 
their own advancement and more vitally concerned with the 
problem of their training in school. If manufacturers are willing 
to agree to accept no apprentices from other employers in the 
same industry, there should be very little difficulty in maintain- 
ing a successful system. 

Qualifications for efficiency. Experience and training are essen- 
tial to the safe operation of practically all woodworking machin- 
ery, if accidents are to be avoided. Practically all of the work 
requires manipulative skill and dexterity rather than the exer- 
cise merely of physical strength. The operation of modern wood- 
working machines cannot safely or with advantage be entrusted 
to boys. Machine operators should have special instruction in 
the safe operation of their machines, and most of this instruction 
can be given by the foreman. The employment of off-bearers as 
machine operators after a few months' experience is reprehen- 
sible, owing to the dangerous character of the work. If these 
off-bearers could have more general instruction in cabinet mak- 
ing or some other part of the work of assembling furniture, they 
might come back to the work of the machine operator with more 
adequate practical experience and a better understanding of 
the job. 

Mental alertness, and some ability to analyze the processes 
of production as avcII as physical strength are essential for 
efficient machine operation. 

The worker in any one of the furniture and woodAvorkinu - 
industries should know something about other branches of the 
industries, especially those which are closely related to the branch 
in which he is employed. Knowledge of the lumber industry, 
for example, including all the processes involved from the time 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 149 

the tree is cut to the time it is stacked in the lumber yard, 
covering source of supply, means of transportation, and methods 
of sawing and drying — would be of immediate value to the furni- 
ture maker. The cabinet maker should know how to watch grain 
in wood, how to construct furniture so that there will be the 
least difficulty from shrinkage and warpage. He should know 
fiow to use screws, glue, and fasteners to the best advantage. The 
machine woodworkers should be able to adjust bearings, set- 
knives, and handle material with the least effort. The finisher 
should understand the application of stains, fillers and var- 
nishes, and be able to overcome the difficulties experienced in 
handling different woods. Foremen of departments should be 
selected for their general intelligence and their ability to improve 
the product as well as to increase the productive efficiency of the 
plant. 

In the recent past there has been little demand for trained 
workers in this industry, but present indications lead to the 
belief that because of the prosperous condition of the country, 
a higher grade of furniture will be in demand. In terms of 
skill and training, this development presages a new era. Already 
there are indications that higher types, as well as better grades 
of period furniture are to be manufactured in Evansville. 

In the year ending March 30, 1016, approximately 130 boys 
who had not completed their elementary schooling left school 
on permits to enter the furniture industry, and this number may 
be accepted as indicating the normal loss each year of the schools 
to the industry under present conditions. These boys are given 
fairly regular employment the year round, since there are no well 
defined slack seasons, but they left school with a very meager 
school training and with no special vocational training whatever. 
They left school before they had been taught anything that 
would be of special value to them in their future occupation. 
Even the most practical branches of arithmetic come too late in 
the school course to have been taken by them. The returns of 
the Survey show that the- schooling of many of these workers, 
as well as of many of the older employees, has been so deficient 
that their efficiency as workers is seriously impaired by their 
inability to understand and to follow written instructions, or to 
make simple calculations or even to write legibly. 



150 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The furniture manufacturers report that they have found it 
quite impossible in many instances to introduce efficiency systems, 
because the men in their employ have too little knowledge of 
even the rudiments of shop mathematics. These men find it diffi- 
cult to keep accurate accounts of time or material consumed, 
and such records as are made are frequently almost illegible. 
Where this is the case, it is difficult, if not impossible, for the 
employer to secure the necessary records for determining produc- 
tion costs accurately. 

Shop i raining and apprenticeship. The Survey reports show- 
that while in the opinion of employees with few exceptions, the 
supply of skilled labor is inadequate and is decreasing, in only 
a few establishments can well defined trades be thoroughly 
learned in the shop. While a large proportion of the work in 
the industry requires, as has been noted, some degree of manipu- 
lative skill and dexterity on the part of the worker, approxi- 
mately three-fourths of the furniture workers being in the class 
of skilled or semi-skilled labor, the processes have in general 
been so specialized that comparatively little general training 
is essential as a condition of employment. No effort is now 
being made, for example, in furniture factories to give thorough 
training in any of the conventional woodworking skilled trades, 
such, as cabinet making, nor is any effort being made to train men 
as decorators, or to develop a capacity for designing new lines 
of furniture. One large manufacturer reports that after a period 
of from 60 to 90 days, the apprentice or journeyman is earning 
his maximum wage. Such a system kills out the boy's ambition 
and his interest in his work. Manufacturers generally stated 
that the difficulty experienced in obtaining efficient journeymen 
is due to "lack of opportunity" for training, and the lack of an 
apprenticeship system. 

The inadequacy of the shop training given in the industries 
in the past is obvious in the reports of the Survey from 20 furni- 
ture manufacturing establishments, employing some 1,800 work- 
ers. These reports show that no formal instruction is given in 
the shop, except that given by foremen to acquaint the worker 
with a particular job or process, and that in the larger factories 
little if any effort is made to change men from machine to 
machine, or from process to process. The training given in the 
shop has, therefore, no value except with reference to the given 
machine or process. In this respect, conditions in the smaller 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 151 

shops are somewhat more favorable to the worker, since in these 
shops he is more frequently shifted from one line of work to 
another, acquiring in consequence a fuller knowledge of the indus- 
try than can generally be acquired in the larger shops. 

No considerable attempt has, in fact, been made in the past 
to train boys or men in the shop, except in the smaller establish- 
ments, where training is needed for the interchange of workers 
from one machine to another in order to keep an even balance 
in the working force. In the larger factories, men are not sys- 
tematically changed from machine to machine or from process 
to process. No formal instruction is given as to processes, except 
that which is given by the foreman to acquaint the worker with 
his particular job or particular process. This leaves the worker 
to pick up knowledge of the machine or of the process wherever 
he can or from where he can in a great many cases. In the 
smaller shops it is found that men are more generally given an 
opportunity to acquaint themselves with all the machines in the 
plant, and all the processes of manufacture. The small number 
of persons employed makes it necessary on occasions to shift 
men from one machine or process to another. The small employer 
is, moreover, anxious to retain his skilled employees, by giving 
them every advantage possible. Employment in the small shops 
is, therefore, steady throughout the year. 

Another phase of the present conditions is found in the fact 
that little or no effort is now being made by manufacturers to 
thoroughly train operatives for positions of responsibility, as 
foremen or superintendents. 

Is promotion systematic, by merit for efficiency, or accidental f 
In the factories, generally, as has been noted, boys are trained 
for specific operations and notwithstanding the fact that there 
is perfect sequence in the manufacture of the product, there is 
no sequence whatever in promotion of operatives. Boys taken 
on are put to a machine, where they stay for an indefinite period, 
usually until an operator happens to be required for another 
machine a little more difficult to handle, when the boy may be 
shifted to that machine. Promotion is, therefore, accidental 
and unsystematic. It will be obvious that such conditions put 
a premium upon general inefficiency, and that no system of voca- 
tional training can achieve success unless the worker is assured 
promotion in proportion as he becomes more efficient. 



152 Evansville Vocational Survey 

In the planing mills, occasionally, boys are employed as 
machine helpers and through personal initiative become machine 
operators. This process of reaching the top is, however, too slow 
for most boys and after working for a short time as helpers, 
many will throw up their job and present themselves at some 
other establishment as full-fledged machine operators. Such 
boys are usually given a try-out and if they are fairly successful 
and show promise they are retained until such time as they 
decide to move on to another plant. By this practice of moving 
from one plant to another, the bright boy is enabled, in the course 
of a few years, to familiarize himself with several different 
machines and become somewhat expert in their operation. In 
the lumber industry, also, while the operations in this industry 
are in perfect sequence, no effort has been made to give sequence 
in occupations. Men are "broken in" to one job and usually 
remain in that job as long as they stay with their employers. 

Does the discipline of the industries contribute to good citizen- 
ship? If regard be had to conditions which have obtained in 
the past, the answer to this inquiry must be that the shop disci- 
pline and practice of these industries have not to the full extent 
that they are capable of doing, in the past contributed to good 
citizenship. The expenditure of public money for vocational 
training of workers for these industries must be conditioned upon 
the capacity of the industries to employ in and attract to Evans- 
ville a desirable class of labor. Before any expenditure is 
assumed by the public schools, it should be established that the 
industries are such as should be encouraged by the expenditure 
of public money. If the industries cannot employ skilled, high- 
grade and intelligent labor, no expenditure in their support should 
be undertaken. 

In many lines of the furniture and woodworking industries, 
the processes and the product itself have been so completely and 
finally standardized, and the division of labor carried to such 
an extent, that there is the minimum opportunity for the exercise 
of originality and initiative. In such cases, industrial growth 
is merely increase in bulk of a standardized simple product, 
involving an increase in the aggregation of unskilled labor, whose 
earnings are meager, and whose standards of living are neces- 
sarily near the subsistence point. These laborers tend to deter- 
mine the character of the community in which they live. 



Summary of Finding? as to Industries 153 

It is believed, however, that thp opportunities for diversifi- 
cation of product and for the profitable employment of skilled 
workers, is sufficient in these industries to warrant the establish- 
ment of vocational courses, provided the manufacturers enter into 
co-operation with the schools and so organize their shop practice 
as to insure to workers promotion and increase in earnings accord- 
ing as the efficiency of the worker is increased. 

Can the schools co-operate f The purpose of vocational educa- 
tion as regards this industry, will be to introduce into it the 
element of progress, by providing for the systematic acquire- 
ment of that knowledge and skill, which the industry itself can- 
not give, and which is nevertheless, essential not merely to insure 
normal growth, but in fact to insure the community against 
a decline of the industry that must inevitably result unless some 
systematic provision is made for progress. The industry can- 
not remain in a stationary state. It must either advance or 
decline, and in competition with other communities, which are 
in greater numbers from year to year providing vocational train- 
ing in the public schools, decline is certain unless the industry 
is undergoing constantly a process of improvement. 

While no system of apprenticeship in the furniture and wood- 
working industry is now in operation, there is apparently no 
opposition to this form of training. The principal difficulty to 
be overcome is the disposition on the part of the workmen to 
shorten the period of training in order to earn a maximum 
wage at an early age. This results in a disposition on the part 
of the employer to avoid the hiring of boys, and also causes 
much shifting about between the factories. Any apprenticeship 
system to be successful in this industry must offer training in 
several lines of employment, and the apprenticeship term should 
be short for machine woodworkers and longer for cabinet making 
trades. Advancement in the trade should come after a general 
training involving both part-time instruction in the schools, and 
shop instruction in a broader sense than is now the general prac- 
tice. It may be possible to arrange for an agreement with the 
employer, specifying a school experience based on certain voca- 
tional courses. If this is possible, credit may be given in order 
to shorten the apprenticeship term. 

In all of this work the co-operation of the industry with the 
school is essential, but only such co-operation as is clearly profit- 



154 Evansville Vocational Survey 

able to the industry, of which no economic sacrifice is required, 
but only the adoption of such a policy as will insure its advancement. 
If as a result of vocational work in the schools, the manufacturers 
of Evansville are enabled to improve the character and design 
of their output, if, for instance, they are enabled to develop 
special lines of period furniture, it is entirely probable that the 
industry and those employed in it, as well as the whole com- 
munity, directly and indirectly, will secure immediate economic 
returns which will yield ample dividends upon any investment 
that may be required for the establishment of vocational courses. 
This investment, it should be noted, is not required of the indus- 
try which enjoys the profits of vocational training. The funds 
for the establishment of vocational courses, and the revenue for 
their maintenance are provided by the state and by the com- 
munity. Of the industry itself, only such co-operation is required 
as will enable the schools to do their work effectively. 

Under any system of vocational education in the public schools, 
it would always be true that the shops of the industry must pro- 
vide the working laboratory in which the boy or girl learning 
a vocation must acquire skill and dexterity by performance of 
actual service under wage-working conditions. It is not proposed 
in establishing vocational courses, that the schools shall under- 
take to give in the schools anything that the industry gives, or 
can advantageously be made to give in the shop. On the con- 
trary, it is proposed that the schools shall give precisely that 
training which cannot advantageously be provided in the shop. 
It is proposed, further, that the schools shall co-operate with 
the industry in utilizing the equipment of the shops for the train- 
ing of youths who are later to enter the industry as apprentices, 
and to so utilize this equipment as to insure the manufacturer that 
the individual worker entering the industry on an apprentice- 
ship as a graduate of the vocational course, shall have a practical 
knowledge of the industry adequate to make him an efficient 
workman. This scheme will tie up the industry with the educa- 
tional system of the public schools, and will make the industry 
itself, as it should be made, an educational force in the com- 
munity. 

Many boys of ability leave school during the latter part of 
their grade school career, or the first two years of high school, 
because of economic pressure, or to state the case more correctly, 
because the school does not now provide any course of instruc- 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 155 

tion or training that has economic value for them. A prevoca- 
tional course for such boys would be valuable to them as a means 
of limited preparation for their life-work. The course in wood- 
work should embrace the three distinct classes of woodwork, 
namely, machine work, cabinet making, and carpentry. The 
machine work course should include instruction relative to the 
care and operation of the machines. The cabinet making course 
should embrace the processes involved in the gluing, assembling, 
and finishing of projects. Projects in lots for commercial pur- 
poses in many cases for school use, would require a repetition 
of processes which would have disciplinary value. Carpentry 
involving practical operations, would make necessary a study 
of formulas and standard rules in connection with this work. 
Projects of commercial value could be undertaken which would 
make the work appeal all the more to the boy who knows that 
he will in his trade have to deal with the problems involved in 
such projects. Contracts could be made for flagmen's houses, 
garages, poultry houses, and other small buildings, under which 
all problems relating to the trade could be developed. Courses 
in shop mathematics taught by one familiar with shop problems 
should be provided for the workers. 

If suitable vocational courses had been open to them, it is 
probable that many of the boys who left school before complet- 
ing the elementary grades, would have continued their school 
work, since in such courses they would have received special 
training to prepare them for their future employments. Stay- 
ing in school would not have been a luxury; on the contrary, 
it would have been an economic necessity. The vocational train- 
ing which they would have received had they remained in school, 
would have had a general educational value, fully equal, if not 
superior to that given by the conventional non-vocational courses 
offered in the public schools. In the woodworking vocational 
courses, mathematics, for example, would necessarily be taught in 
its applications to practical problems arising in the shop; and 
similarly, mechanical and free-hand drawing, English, and his- 
tory, would be taught with reference to the requirements of the 
industry. All of the instruction would have a vocational purpose, 
but its educational and disciplinary value would not on that 
account be any the less. The important point is, that this addi- 



1 50 Evansville Vocational Survey 

tional schooling would have immense educational value, inde- 
pendently of its special value as vocational training. 

It is, however, the vocational value of such training that is 
of immediate interest, and it is, in fact, its vocational value alone 
that must justify the establishment of such courses. This value 
cannot be measured accurately, certainly not in dollars and cents, 
but neither can the value of any sort of education be so meas- 
ured, including that which teaches the alphabet, writing, and 
the simple operations of arithmetic, along with that instruction 
given in the higher technical schools, and in the universities. 
There is, in fact, no course of instruction in the public schools, 
from the most elementary to the most advanced of which the 
value can be figured in dollars and cents, and it would be unrea- 
sonable to apply to vocational training, in judging of its value, 
a standard which cannot be applied to any sort of training or 
discipline, intellectual, moral or physical. 

If provision were made in the public schools to give to the 
boys who get permits to enter these industries, vocational courses 
occupying two hours a day on three days each week, such a 
course would discharge, in part, the educational obligation of 
the community with reference to these boys, and would at the 
same time, make them more efficient workers in the industry. 

On account of the expense, it would be difficult, if not impos- 
sible, to introduce any form of practical trade training in the 
grade schools. The average manual training teacher in the 
grades has not a practical knowledge of the industries, which 
would enable him to qualify as a teacher in vocational work. Voca- 
tional instruction and training, if it is to be effective, must be 
given by practical men, and must be so centralized as to provide 
in each line of work, classes sufficiently large to warrant the 
employment of teachers. The work cannot be scattered through 
the grades. Teachers for this work must be taken from the 
trades themselves, and it seems possible to develop competent 
teachers within the city of Evansville from foremen now at work 
in the industries. Certainly no training which fails to take 
account of the wide use of machinery in the furniture and wood- 
working factories, or fails to give experience in the actual use 
of such machinery in the shops w r ill be of any material vocational 
value. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 157 

Under these conditions, the necessity for some comprehensive 
system of vocational training and for regular apprenticeship in 
the industry is obvious, and the Survey has found that there is 
an inclination on the part of practically all those engaged in 
the furniture industry to introduce some sort of apprentice 
scheme. Even two or three apprentices from each establishment 
taking regular work in the schools with practical teachers, would 
insure the improvement of methods and of the organization o1 
the working force in the factories. The school stands reaay to 
meet the manufacturers half way in providing equipment and 
instruction for apprentices. 

As a result of conferences with the furniture manufacturers 
held during the progress of the Survey, tentative plans have been 
made to develop a supply of trained workers for this industry. 
The plan comprehends: (1) The training of boys as cabinet mak- 
ers; (2) the training of boys for machine operators; and (3) the 
training of foremen and their assistants in design, color harmony, 
use of stains, period furniture, and shop management. The 
arrangement with the schools contemplates a part-time scheme 
of training for apprentices both as cabinet makers and machine 
operators on the basis of a four years apprenticeship. 

This plan for the training of apprentices contemplates not 
only part-time training during the apprenticeship period, but 
provides further that the apprentices shall be obtained from 
the public schools in which full-time vocational courses are to 
be established. 

These vocational courses must prepare directly for definite 
occupations. The employers have agreed to depend on the public; 
schools to furnish recruits for industrial employment — definite 
certificates of proficiency to be issued by the school and demanded 
by the employer. 

In order to make this training efficient and practical the 
equipment of the schools must include standard types of wood- 
working machinery, and it may be noted that the demand from 
the industries is that only practical men with shop experience 
shall undertake this instruction. 

The shop organization of an industry cannot discharge itself 
from the responsibility to train its own workmen by agreeing 
to a part-time system. A continuation school in which boys 
employed in factories spend a few hours a w r eek cannot do more 



158 Evansville Vocational Survey 

than make up to a certain degree the deficiencies of its pupils 
in the common school branches. The instruction of these continu- 
ation school pupils should be undertaken in a way somewhat 
different from the ordinary school methods. It should be realized 
that the employer pays these pupils for their time, and that he 
expects in return an improvement in their general intelligence 
which will increase their efficiency from month to month. 

The instructor should be thoroughly well informed as to the 
vocational needs of his boys, and should make very frequent 
visits to their place of employment. He should have regular 
hours assigned for consultation work with his pupils and with 
their employers. 

For some time to come, foremen must be selected by employ- 
ers without reference to the schools, since individual qualities 
as shown in the ability to manage men, and knowledge of shop 
conditions, will count for more than school training. But fore- 
men, now employed, and capable boys and men ambitious to 
become foremen, may be given courses of lectures and an oppor- 
tunity, to read trade papers and technical books through the 
co-operation of the city library and the school. In time it may 
be predicted that many of the foremen of the city will have been 
given training in the vocational schools. 

2. Occupational Analyses 

A. The Furniture Industry 

Occupational classification of workers. In Table I the workers 
in the furniture industry are classified by occupation and as 
skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled, the rate of wages per hour 
being given for each occupational group. 

Dry kiln men. The progressive type of dry kiln is the one 
most commonly found in connection with large furniture fac- 
tories. This kiln is a long room which holds a certain number 
of trucks. At the receiving end of the room are air ducts lead- 
ing to the outside of the building. The reason for bringing air 
from the outside is because it is of greater humidity than air 
from within. A ventilator is located in the ceiling of the room 
for regulating the humidity of the air. The moist air opens the 
pores of the lumber. This makes it possible for the lumber to 
dry from the inside outward, instead of drying only the outside 
as is the case under ordinary conditions. The heat is supplied 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 159 

from the discharging end of the kiln and pipes are so arranged 
as to expose the lumber to an increasing temperature as the 
truck moves on toward the discharging end. The maximum tem- 
perature varies from 140 to 150 degrees F. The lumber is next 
put into the cooling room. This is for the purpose of leaving 
it to absorb from two to three per cent of moisture. This brings 
lumber to a first class condition for working. 

Another type of kiln is the compartment kiln, which consists 
of a number of compartments independent of each other. Humid- 
ity of atmosphere is provided from steam pits under the 
lumber. After the pores are opened, the temperature is gradually 
increased, and the humidity decreased, and thus the drying is 
accomplished. 

The dry kiln man receives the lumber at the yard, sees that 
it is air seasoned, puts it through the dry kiln when necessary, 
and delivers it to the mill men when needed. Eegardless of the 
fact that he is usually an expert in his line and as such performs 
a very important function in the plant, he is rated as a common 
laborer. 

With the exception of the foreman who has charge of both 
the lumber yard and the department whose work it is to finish 
the stock, no training is required other than experience gained 
in the regular routine of the work, and the ability to read 
and write, and handle figures accurately. Beyond this, the only 
qualification necessary is long experience in handling and judging 
lumber. 

Double surfacer operators. The double surfacer is a power 
feed machine having two heads, each having two or three knives, 
so constructed as to surface lumber on both sides at one opera- 
tion. This machine surfaces lumber to any desired thickness. 
The heads, feed, and raising and lowering mechanism are driven 
by belts connected with the countershaft. 

The operator of this machine receives the lumber from the 
yardman, and puts it through the double surfacer for the purpose 
of cleaning up the surfaces of the stock so that the swing sawyer 
can see clearly any defects in the stock such as worm holes, etc.. 
and grade the stock accordingly. This man has a helper, usually 
an apprentice, who receives the lumber from the machine, 
arranges it in proper order on a truck and passes it on to the 
swing sawyer. 



160 



EVANRVILLE VOCATIONAL SURVEY 



Table I — Number of Skilled, Semi-skilled, Unskilled and Apprentice 

Furniture Workers. Classified by Occupations and Rate 

of Wages per Hour 



Occupation 



Total 

Preparation of slock: 

Bender 

Dry kiln men ... 

Rip sawyer 

Rough surfacer. . . 

Swing sawyer. . . . 
'Sard men 



Finishing operations: 

Apprentices 

Band sawyer 

Borer 

Cabinet surfacer 

Carver 

Dovetailer 

Embosser 

Gluer and veneerer . 

Jointer 

Mach. operators, spec. 

Mortiscr 

Moulder 

Resawyer 

Sanders 

Saw filer 

Shaper 

Tenoner , 

Wood turner 



Assembling: 

Assemblers . . . 
Cabinet maker 
Chair maker. . 



Finishing room : 

Apprentices 

Killer 

Packers 

Rubber and polisher 

Stainer 

Tpholsterers 

Varnisher 



Rate 

of 

Wages 

per 

Hour 



21 
15 

21 
21 
21 
15 



15 

21 
21 
21 
30 
21 
21 
21 
21 
21 

,21 
21 
21 
21 
45 

.21 
21 

.21 



23 

24 
24 



L5 

20 
21 
20 
20 

27 
20 



Number of Workers 



Total 



1 ,801 



39 



I 1 
58 
20 
62 
12 



65 
30 
29 
25 
14 
90 
15 
16 
52 
15 



80 

183 

65 



59 

2 IS 
54 
68 
13 

148 



Skilled 



12 



L3 



L5 



150 

45 



Semi- 
skilled 



802 
3 



50 



50 
15 

42 



5 
3 

77 
45 
20 
25 
20 
12 
70 



80 



55 
34 
58 
5 
29 



Un- 
skilled 



478 

4 
33 

22 
22 
22 
30 



8 

5 

20 



20 

10 

4 

5 

2 

20 



59 
L63 



10 



Appren- 
tices 



96 



I 1 



33 

20 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 161 

About the only qualifications necessary on the part of this 
man are that he must understand his machine thoroughly, so 
that he will be able to make any necessary adjustments, such 
as come with surfacing different sized stock or at times when the 
machine fails to work properly. If the laborer is observant 
and willing to apply his knowledge from observation, he can 
obtain all the qualifications necessary to run this machine. 

Jointer operators. There are three kinds of jointers: Hand 
jointer, power feed automatic jointer, and Linderman automatic 
jointer. 

The hand jointer is a machine consisting of a table and a 
cylindrical cutter over which the work is passed by hand. This 
machine is sometimes equipped with a power feed device into 
which the stock is fed. It is used entirely for straightening, smooth- 
ing and beveling stock. 

The automatic jointer is a machine used entirely for straight- 
ening the edges of stock. This machine is a power feed machine, 
having two cutter heads running in opposite directions, and is 
fed by a continuous chain which carries the stock over the cutter 
on one side of the machine. The stock is then reversed and 
carried back over the other cutter, thereby smoothing both edges 
with a saving of one operation necessary on the hand jointer. 

The Linderman automatic jointer is a machine used entirely 
for gluing narrow stock into boards to desired widths. It is a 
power feed machine which is fed by two continuous chains run- 
ning in opposite directions. The stock is fed from both ends of 
the machine, passing over cutters and revolving glue brushes, 
and is automatically ejected at center of the machine and glued 
together. The cutters are arranged in such a manner so as to 
cut a tapering dovetail tongue on one piece and the necessary 
rpcess on the opposite piece. By a system of cams the dovetail 
is tapered, causing stock to be automatically drawn tightly 
together, thereby eliminating the use of clamps. The machine 
is quite expensive as compared to other woodworking machinery. 
For this reason, it is not found in many woodworking factories. 
It is the greatest labor and lumber saving machine to be found in the 
furniture industry. 

The Linderman machines require a chief operator and a helper. 
The operator must understand the mechanism of his machine, 
be able to adjust the knives properly and to keep all its parts 

11—5543 



162 Evansville Vocational Survey 

in good running order. He must also understand the nature of 
his material and know how to put it through the machine to get 
the best surface results. The helpers of these machines are of 
about the same type as those connected with the sawyer group, 
and in the case of the planer helper, the duties are exactly sim- 
ilar. In connection with the glue jointer the helper's job is 
slightly different, but no more difficult. He sits at the tail of the 
machine, receives the pieces of lumber as they come through 
one side of the machine, reverses them and sends them back on 
the other side. This is a sort of an automatic job and requires 
very slight exercise of either mental or physical power. At the 
present time four of the complicated types of machine known 
as the Linderman Dovetail Glue Jointer are to be found in the 
city. This machine requires a crew of four men, a chief operator, 
two feeders and a sawyer. 

The chief operator must be something of a mechanician since 
it is his business to keep his machine in such condition as to get 
the best possible results. He starts and stops the machine and 
as the joined pieces are automatically ejected, catches them and 
passes them on to the sawyer. 

Semi-skilled machine operators. Operators of the cabinet sur- 
facer, the bending machines, the tenoner, the mortiser, the dove- 
tailer, the borer, the moulding machine or sticker, the shaper, 
the universal woodworker, the equalizer or double cut-off saw, 
the spindle carver, and the press carver are semi-skilled work- 
men. 

These operators feed the material to the machine and keep 
the machine properly adjusted so as to get the best possible results. 
Since the machines are for the most part complicated, it is neces- 
sary to have men of considerable mechanical skill, yet physical 
strength is most essential. The operator of these machines should, 
moreover, have some knowledge of shop mathematics since he 
works with dimensions, and should be able to read drawings 
intelligently. The carvers and sticker men should have also some 
artistic sense and skill. 

A brief account of these several machines is given in the 
following paragraphs : 

The cabinet surfacer is a machine similar to the double sur- 
Pacer, except that it has but one head instead of two, so arranged 
that the stock is fed between the head and the table. The feeding 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 163 

device consists of four rollers, two of which are in front of the 
head and two in rear of the head. These rollers are placed oppo- 
site each other, above and below the table. This machine is 
used for smoothing or planing stock to desired thicknesses. 

The bending machine is used to bend backs and legs of chairs. 
It consists of tw r o adjustable pivoted arms which are drawn 
together at the top by means of heavy chains, so constructed as 
to exert an even pressure on stock to be bent about a form. The 
power is furnished from a friction countershaft. 

The tenoner, either a single end or double end tenoner, is 
found in every furniture factory. The single end tenoner cuts 
tenons on stock on one end only while the double end tenoner 
equalizes tenons and sometimes copes both ends of stock at one 
operation. The double end tenoner has eight heads. The first two 
heads of this machine are cut-off saws. The second set of heads 
consists of four cutter heads which cut the tenons. The third 
set of heads are the cope heads which cut the copes and tenons 
which are fitted in moulded pieces, such as window sashes. This 
machine is power fed. It is fed by means of two chains on each 
side of the machine. On these chains are lugs which hold the 
stock firmly while passing under the pressure bar while being 
cut. These machines have a range for length varying from 
approximately four inches to eight feet and have practically no 
limit to the width. The cutters can be adjusted for any length, 
width, and thickness of tenons. Very accurate work can be done 
on this machine. 

Mortisers are of several kinds, but the hollow chisel mortiser 
is the one most commonly used. This machine can be found of 
single or multiple type. The machine consists of one or more 
square hollow chisels, on the inside of which is a boring bit. 
The table of this machine is brought in contact with the station- 
ary chisels by means of connecting rods operated by friction 
clutch. The stock when coming in contact with these chisels is 
simultaneously bored and the corners chiseled away, thereby 
leaving a square mortise free from chips. The size of the mortise 
depends on the size of the chisels, which can be obtained from 
one-fourth to one inch square. 

The dovetailer is a machine used for dovetailing drawers. 
It consists of about twelve gear-driven spindles into which dove- 
tail cutters are fastened. The piece to be dovetailed is clamped 



164 Evawssville Vocational Survey 

to the machine table by means of an eccentric lever. The work 
is thrust into the bits by manipulating two levers. The male 
and female parts are generally cut at one operation with the 
same bits. 

Borers, either vertical or horizontal, are found in single and 
in multiple machines. They consist of chucks, either belt or gear 
driven, into which boring bits are fastened by means of a set 
screw, or other patent device. The work is brought in contact 
with the bit by means of a foot pedal or hand lever. 

The moulding machine or sticker is used for cutting various 
kinds of ornamental moulding used in furniture work. The work 
is fed by rollers to different shaped cutters distributed along the 
path by which the stock travels. The machine is equipped with 
a set of various shaped knives which makes it possible through 
various combinations to form many different kinds of moulding. 

The shaper is a machine consisting of a table, and one or two 
vertical spindles extending through the table. These spindles 
are fitted with knives or cutters, by a series of different sized 
collars, fastened securely from the top by a nut. Mouldings of 
irregular shapes are made on this machine. A great variety of 
other work, such as grooving, can be done. This is a very high 
speed machine, usually run at about 700 revolutions per minute. 
The machine is furnished with two spindles, which revolve in 
opposite directions for the purpose of always moulding stock 
with the grain. It is considered the most dangerous machine 
in the woodworking industry. 

The universal woodworker can be used for a great many 
purposes. It consists of an adjustable table, and an adjustable 
fence fastened to the table. The mandrel, fastened in journals 
under the table, is driven by a belt connected with a countershaft. 
On this mandrel, jointer heads, moulding heads, panel raisers, 
saws, etc., can be used. On one end of the mandrel is fastened a 
boring chuck, the table for which is a part of the machine base. 

The equalizer or double cut-off saw is found in either hand or 
power feed type. It consists of a saw table in two parts, through 
which a saw protrudes from each part. One part of this table 
is stationary, while the other can be moved sideways, allowing 
saws to cut off stock to any desired length. The stock is laid in 
front of a gauge or fence, which slides or rolls on the table, 
and is passed through the saws. The power feed machine has 



iSUMMAKY~OF FlN DUN US AS TO INDUSTRIES 165 

two continuous traveling chains and pressure bars similar to 
the double end tenoner. 

The spindle carver consists of an arm fastened to a bench, 
and having two bearings to which are fastened a spindle. This 
spindle has threads on one end, onto which various shaped tools 
and cutters are screwed. These tools are circular, and have about 
fifteen blades. The carving is first scrolled on the band saw, 
and then it is carved by manipulating it under and against these 
various tools. The operators of these machines are considered 
skilled laborers and generally receive good wages. 

The press carver consists of a slowly revolving drum, to which 
dies are fastened and usually heated by gas or electricity. A 
feed roller revolves in the opposite direction of the drum. The 
stock is fed between this roller and drum, causing the sharp 
dies to cut, carving into the stock. 

Veneerers. The work of veneering is that of overlaying or 
facing wood of a less expensive quality with a thin piece of a 
finer or more beautiful kind. Veneering is really a much more 
expensive operation than working in the solid wood. 

"While veneer presents a beautiful surface, it is useful also 
as a means of preventing large surfaces from shrinking or check- 
ing. Layers of veneer, with the grain of each layer placed at 
right angles to those above and below it, make stock of a per- 
fectly smooth, even surface, which will not expand or shrink in any 
direction. 

The processes in the veneering department include the cutting, 
matching and jointing of the veneer; the spreading of the glue, 
either by hand or by machine (usually a corrugated roller revolv- 
ing in a glue tank), on the piece; the laying on of the veneer; 
the placing of the veneered pieces in a press which forces the 
veneer down tight against the solid wood; and finally the shifting 
of the press load to a retainer, where it is left until the glue 
is thoroughly dried. 

Owing to the growing scarcity of woods and the improvement 
in methods of veneering, this occupation is becoming a very 
important one in the furniture industry. Many establishments 
now have distinct veneering departments. Cutting and match- 
ing the veneer is considered highly skilled work and is usually 
done hy a man who does nothing else. 



166 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Veneerers must know how to select that portion of the log? 
which presents the greatest beauty in grain, because if cut in 
the ordinary way, almost two-thirds of the beautiful flakes, waves 
and burls would be lost. 

Sanders. There are four general types of sanding machines, 
namely, drum sanders, disc sanders, spindle sanders and belt 
sanders. 

The power-feed drum sander consists of a table in which feed 
rollers are inserted, also three drums covered with sandpaper. 
On top of this table is a heavy frame also inserted with feed 
rollers. This frame can be raised or lowered by power or hand 
corresponding to the thickness of stock to be sandpapered. The 
drums are covered with three grades of paper. The first drum 
has about No. 2 paper ; the second, No. 1 paper ; the third, No. 
paper. Only flat surfaces can be sanded on this machine. A 
second type of drum sander is found on which the drums are 
inserted in the frame. The table has an endless traveling chain- 
like bed. On this type of machine much shorter stock can be 
sanded than on the roll feed machine. There are also other drum 
sanding machines, both vertical and horizontal, which consist 
of one revolving drum covered with sandpaper, against which 
the work is held by hand. 

The disc sander consists of a disc ranging from twenty to 
fifty inches in diameter, covered with sandpaper. The table is 
placed slightly above the center of this disc. The work is laid 
flat on the table and pressed against the revolving disc. 

The spindle sander consists of a small spindle ranging from 
one and one-half to three inches in diameter, and is in a vertical 
position. The spindle projects through a table. Besides revolv- 
ing it has a vertical oscillating motion. This sander is used for 
scroll edges. 

The belt polishing sanders are found in great variety as to 
size and use. One type of this machine, used for flat surfaces 
only, consists of two pulleys, around which a sand belt is carried 
horizontally. Tinder this belt is a rolling table which rolls at 
right angles to the direction of the sand belt. The piece to be 
polished is placed on this table and the pressure is applied to the 
belt either by hand block or other automatic device. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 167 

Other types of sand belt polishers consist of belts running 
over pulleys and forms of various shapes, used to polish scroll 
work, mouldings, etc. 

The men operating the different types of sanding machines 
oring the work in contact with the belt, cylinder, spindle or 
drum. Although the machines are simple in character, the oper- 
ators are classified as semi-skilled workmen. The chief qualifi- 
cation of the sander is, however, physical dexterity. Since the 
machines are simple, the operator need not be a mechanician. 

Sawyers. The principal machines operated by the sawyers 
are the swing saw, the rip saw, the band scroll saw, the scroll 
or jig saw and the band resaw. These machines and their oper- 
ations are described in the following paragraphs. 

The swing saw is a machine supported by brackets usually 
fastened to ceiling or vertical timbers, used to cut lumber to de- 
sired lengths. This machine consists of an arm with bearings 
and countershaft at the top allowing the lower end to swing out 
over a table. The saw is at the lower end of the arm connected to 
a countershaft at the top and is belted from above. The oper- 
ator receives the lumber from the double surfacer and passes it 
on to the rip sawyer. In some cases he is regarded as the most 
important factor in the plant. He must be a good judge of lumber 
and be able to cut his stock with the least possible waste. To do 
this he must know whether a piece is to be veneered, finished 
plain or hidden under cushions and upholstering. To become a 
swing sawyer in the sense here indicated, a man must first have 
mastered the rip saw. This man has a helper, usually an appren- 
tice, who receives the stock from the machine, arranges it in 
proper order on a truck and passes it on to the rip sawyer. It 
is also a part of his job to cart away the waste material that 
accumulates around the machine. From rip sawyer to swing 
sawyer is regarded as a promotion, but there is no particular 
route by which a man must reach the rip saw. The position of 
helper is often occupied by boys of subnormal class who have 
neither ambition or ability to rise higher, or sometimes by men 
who are too old to continue in the more responsible positions. 
The job makes so slight a draft on the intelligence of the helper 
that the bright, ambitious boy will not stay long. 

There are three kinds of rip saws, the circular hand feed, the 
circular power feed and the power feed band rip saw. The hand 
feed circular rip saw consists of a circular rip saw fitted to an 



168 Evansville Vocational Survey 

arbor underneath a table which can be raised or lowered for 
different thicknesses of stock. To the table is fitted a sliding 
board on the left hand side of the saw, on which stock is held 
in position while being ripped. This machine is made almost 
entirely of wood, the only metal parts being the saw and saw arbor. 
The power feed rip saw is a machine with a heavy iron frame. 
It has feed rolls which can be raised or lowered according to 
thickness of stock to be ripped. The machine table is sometimes 
equipped with continuous traveling feed chain or continuous 
revolving rollers. The band rip saw consists of an endless band 
of steel with teeth cut into one edge, generally about eighteen 
gauge, the width ranging from two to four inches. The band 
is operated over two iron wheels, placed directly one above the 
other. The power is furnished to the lower wheel. Between the 
wheels is a saw table having an opening through which the saw 
runs. The feeding devices of these machines are similar to the 
power feed circular rip saw. The operator of this machine re- 
ceives the short length stock from the swing sawyer and rips it 
to desired widths. This man has a helper, usually an apprentice 
whose work is similar to that of the helper of the swing sawyer. 
He must have fair natural ability, but does not need to have any 
special training other than that which can readily be gained 
through practice on his machine. 

The band scroll saw, like the band rip saw, consists of a band 
of steel ranging from one-eighth to one-half of an inch in width, 
which runs over two rubber surface wheels and through a slot 
cut into a table placed between the wheels. This machine is used 
for sawing curves and irregular shapes of many kinds. The band 
scroll saw is considered by far the most important machine in 
the furniture industry. The operator receives the stock from 
the band resawyer and saws it into curves and irregular shapes 
The qualifications essential for the band scroll sawyer are similar 
to those required of the band resawyer. 

The scroll or jig saw is an upright saw to which a reciprocating 
motion is given by a crank and connecting rod, the saw frame 
sliding in vertical guides. It is used for sawing scrolls and curves 
that cannot be cut on a band scroll saw. A great convenience 
of this machine is that the blade can be removed and replaced 
in a very short time. This makes it possible to saw inside work, 
such as mirror frames, etc. The operator of this machine receives 
the stock from the band sawyer, and saws it into curves and irreg- 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 169 

ular shapes of various kinds. This work consists almost entirely 
of inside sawing which could not be done with the band scroll 
saw. Since the machine and its operations arc similar to that of 
the band scroll saw, the qualifications of the band scroll sawyer 
and jig sawyer are practically identical. In fact, the operator 
can shift easily from one machine to the otLer. 

The band resaw is similar to the band rip saw, except that 
it is used to resaw stock to thickness parallel to the broad side. 
It is a power feed machine fed by gear-driven rollers placed ver- 
tically. The steel blade used on this machine is usually wider 
than the band rip saw blade, ranging from four to eight inches. 
The operator receives the stock from the cabinet surfacer and 
resaws it to desired thicknesses. This man has a helper, usually 
an apprentice whose work is similar to that of the helper of the 
rip sawyer. The operator must have average ability, but the 
operation of this machine does not require any special qualifica- 
tions other than physical strength. No special training is neces- 
sary except such as may be acquired through practice in the shop. 

Lathe operators. The wood turning lathe is a machine used for 
shaping, mostly rounding pieces of stock by causing them to 
revolve while the cut is being made by a chisel or some other 
cutting tool. These machines are sometimes automatic in their 
work, different shaped knives being so arranged and brought in 
contact with the stock as to make different forms. The knives 
are sometimes regulated by a cam arrangement connected to a 
pattern, which makes it possible to duplicate a form with very 
little difficulty. The lathe is especially useful in turning table 
legs, chair rounds and other pieces where duplicates of one form 
are needed. 

The automatic turning lathe requires an operator whose duty 
it is to put stock into the machine and remove the finished piece. 
He must keep the machine in such a condition as to get the best 
possible results and change the knives when necessary. The 
hand turner's chief work is that of turning the piece by means 
of hand-turning tools which he holds to the stock. 

Both the operator of the automatic lathe and the hand turner 
should possess a high degree of artistic skill. Even though de- 
signs have been provided these men, yet wood-turning permits 
a great many variations and this makes it expedient that the 
operator be able to decide consistently if the design is symmet- 



170 Evansville Vocational Survey 

rical throughout. These men must be able to read a drawing 
intelligently and must have at least a working knowledge of 
shop mathematics. In addition to these qualifications, the hand 
turner must possess a high degree of skill in handling the turn- 
ing tools to the best advantage. This can be acquired only through 
practice. The automatic lathe operator need possess no great 
amount of skill. He should, however, be a good mechanician in 
order to get the best results out of his machine. 

Cabinet makers or assemblers. The cabinet maker's trade, like 
most others, has been affected by the development of machinery. 
The greater part of the work formerly done by hand is now 
turned out by machinery and the cabinet maker in the modern 
factory is generally little more than an assembler of the parts 
which have been cut and dressed in the machine department. 
The work of the cabinet maker has become so thoroughly special- 
ized that in most factories no one man entirely assembles any one 
piece of furniture. For example, in a case-goods factory, the 
case may be clamped together in a case clamp by one set of men 
and other men may fit drawers, tops, etc. In a desk factory and 
in a chair factory, however, each cabinet maker or chair maker 
usually does all of the assembling on each piece. With this spe- 
cialization existing in the industry, few all-round cabinet makers 
as the trade was formerly practiced, are to be found in the large 
factories, although some are still employed in the smaller facto- 
ries. In a few establishments the term "bench hand," "case 
fitter" or "carpenter" instead of cabinet maker is used. In 
some factories the cabinet maker is provided with a helper, usu- 
ally an apprentice who assists him in his work. 

The all-round cabinet maker should have a general under- 
standing of the furniture industry. He should know something 
about the different kinds of wood and the value of each in furni- 
ture work. He should know something about finishing so that 
he will be able to select the stock for a particular piece in such 
way that the finished piece will take stain and varnish uniformly. 
He should know something about design in order that he may 
better understand the drawings which have been provided him, 
and may be able, if necessary, to make consistent changes in the 
design. He should know about joints and the relative value of 
each for different purposes. He should have a practical knowl- 
edge of mathematics since he uses it constantly, as, for example, 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 171 

in taking measurements, and in computing bills of stock. He 
should have a working knowledge of bench tools which he uses 
constantly in the fitting of parts. He should have an under- 
standing of woodworking machines even though he does not 
work with them. 

Chair makers or assemblers. The work of the chair maker cor- 
responds in a general way to that of the cabinet maker in case 
goods. In many of the factories producing the finer grades of 
chairs this work is called cabinet making. "Chair making," as 
applied to lower grade chairs, is not an appropriate term to 
indicate the kind of work done. Most of the shaping operations 
on the different parts of the chair are performed in the machine 
department. The chair maker, however, usually does some 
machine work, such as boring and mortising, the amount of which 
depends on the extent to which division of labor is carried in 
the shop. Ordinarily chair making is done by a group of several 
men working together. "When all parts of the chair have been 
finally shaped and fitted, the dowel pins are glued in, and the 
different pieces are put together and placed in a press or clamp, 
which holds them firmly in place until the glue has had time to 
harden. In case of flush joints, the chair maker shaves or trims 
the parts forming the joint until it is quite smooth. Frame mak- 
ers, who may be included with chair makers, fit up and put to- 
gether the frames for chair seats. Much of their work, such as 
sawing, boring and mortising, is done on machines. 

The work and consequently the qualifications of the chair 
maker are similar to those of the cabinet maker. He should 
know something about the relative bending qualities of wood; 
should understand the principles involved in bending and should 
understand the principles of design. 

Hand carvers. This occupation is being largely superseded by 
machine carving, though in establishments producing high-grade 
furniture, hand carvers are still employed. The work consists 
in carving or fashioning designs in wood for ornamental pur- 
poses on the arms and backs of chairs, the posts and head- 
boards of beds, the feet of cabinets, the panels in sideboards, or 
on other parts of furniture. The work is done with highly tem- 
pered steel tools or knives. It is sometimes roughed out on the ma- 
chine and finished by hand. The carving is generally glued or 
"stuck" in place on flat surfaces. 



172 Evansville Vocational Survey 

This work requires a high degree of skill and some artistic 
ability and the worker must have a steady hand. With practice 
comes skill, which is evidenced by simplified movements and 
speed in the work. The worker should know something about 
design — space relation, unity and symmetry — and must be able 
to transpose a design provided for him upon the piece which he 
is to carve. 

Finishers. The term "finisher," as used, includes all classes 
of skilled or semi-skilled workmen in the finishing department. 
Ordinarily the first operation in finishing is staining. The piece 
is next filled to close up the pores. This is done by rubbing in 
the mineral filling with a rag. Staining and filling are usually 
regarded as semi-skilled occupations, although in many establish- 
ments the work is done largely by unskilled help. After filling, 
the article is sanded to make it smooth. This is generally done 
by boys or unskilled men. It is next treated with shellac and 
then sanded again, after which it is ready for the varnisher. 
Usually from one to three coats of varnish are applied, depending 
on the degree of "finish" desired. Between coats of varnish, it is 
rubbed with oil or water and rotten stone, or is sandpapered. 
Polishers or rubbers who do the final finishing are often highly 
skilled men. In some establishments rubbing of flat surfaces is 
done by machines. The rubbing or polishing device has a rapid 
back-and-forth movement and may be shifted at will by the oper- 
ator. It makes the work much easier than when done by hand. 
Spraying machines for applying varnish by means of compressed 
air are in use in a few factories. The above operations, with some 
variations, comprise the finishing work in all furniture establish- 
ments. In the treatment of chairs and tables of the cheaper 
grades, the varnish is usually applied by dipping. Enamelers and 
gilders are classed with varnishers. Finishing operations and 
machines are described in the following paragraphs: 

The embossing machine consists of a set of rolls, one of which 
carries a removable reverse impression of the pattern which it is 
desired to print in the surface of the chair back, or other part 
which is to be embossed. The impression is not deep and the wood 
must be steamed and the rolls heated by gas. A separate die 
must be used for each new pattern. Very little skill is required 
to operate the machine or to set it up for a new pattern. New 
designs are made in bronze by casting from a pattern. 

Some factories are provided with a grain printing machine 
for making quarter-sawed effect. This is also a finishing process 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 173 

which is done by running flat surfaces between two rollers, one of 
which is made of gelatin with its surface so prepared that it 
prints imitation grain upon the part which comes in contact with 
it. Irregular surfaces and. edges are grained by being held against 
the roller. An inking device keeps the gelatin roller constantly 
inked. In printed work, the parts are printed, shellacked and 
allowed to dry thoroughly before being put together. 

The operations of staining and filling are performed by semi- 
skilled or unskilled labor. Ordinarily the first operation is stain- 
ing, which is done by dipping the piece in a vat of stain, or if the 
piece is large, rubbing the stain in with a brush or mop. If the 
furniture is finished in natural color, no stain is used and the 
wood is filled with a liquid filler, commonly shellac. This is 
possible only with close-grained woods and with painted grain 
furniture. The filler is applied with a brush or spraying machine. 
With oak, mahogany and walnut, and other open grained woods, 
it is necessary to use a mineral or vegetable paste filler which is 
applied with a brush, a mop or with spraying machine. 

Paste fillers require rubbing off with burlap, grass or excelsior. 
The filler hardens in the pores of the wood and makes an imper- 
vious body on which to apply the varnish. 

Varnishing is done with a brush or by dipping, or by spraying 
machines. . The latter process is fast taking the place of other 
methods. After the work is sanded to make it smooth, which is 
commonly done by boys or unskilled men, it is next treated with 
shellac. This process is called "first coating" and when dry the 
surface is sanded again. The drying is done in special "hot 
rooms/' in which the pieces are left over night. The coats of 
varnish, from one to three in number, are put on and dried in the 
varnish drier or hot room. 

The spraying machine is a metal cabinet about six by eight 
fepf in size, provided with an exhaust fan which draws the fumes 
outward into the open air. The spraying nozzle is connected 
to an elevated tank or container. This is frequently heated by 
electric current. The furniture is placed on a revolving stand 
and the varnish, shellac, filler or paint is applied with the nozzle. 

The polisher or rubber is a machine equipped with a rubbing 
or polishing device, which is given a rapid back-and-forth move- 
ment by a cam arrangement. The polishing device can be shifted 
at will by the operator. 



174 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Upholsterers. The work of upholstering is highly specialized 
and few all-round upholsterers are now to be found. In many 
establishments the work is divided into processes, all more or less 
simple, in which much unskilled labor can be employed. Spring 
setting, pad making, sewing, etc., are subdivisions of upholstering 
in many chair and couch factories. The persons doing this w r ork, 
usually boys and women, cannot be regarded as upholsterers in 
the true sense of the word. Evansville does not have an extensive 
line of upholstering. Seventy-five to ninety per cent of the work 
is couch and davenport upholstering while the remainder is done 
in chair factories. 

The upholsterer requires a high degree of skill in spring 
setting, pad making, stuffing, cutting of material, and sewing. 
He should have some artistic ability for determining the kind 
of material to be used and the most desirable way of upholstering 
a particular piece of furniture, taking account of the grade of 
the piece, color harmony of stain and upholstering, etc. He should 
know something about the source and value of upholstering ma- 
terial and should have a practical knowledge of mathematics 
since he deals constantly with dimensions and areas. 

Unskilled laborers. Stackers, unstackers and yardmen are 
unskilled laborers. In most cases the lumber has been graded 
before it enters the dry kiln. Sometimes it is not done until it 
enters the mill room. When neither of these has been done, it is 
graded by the unstackers. In this case, at least one of these men 
must possess some ability enabling him properly to grade it. 

In the machine operations, there are a great many so-called 
laborers as compared with the number of men who handle the 
machines. These laborers are usually men of meager ability, or 
boys who act as off-bearers or machine tailers. These are to be 
found only when the machine turns out material that does not 
require grading. It is the duty of these men to stand beyond the 
machine and remove the product. Here, too, are to be found 
men and boys, common laborers, known as truck or dolly setters. 
Their work is that of removing the empty trucks and placing the 
loaded ones in position for the machine feeder. 

In the assembling department are to be found unskilled men 
or boys who assist the cabinet makers in setting up the pieces 
of furniture. The number of unskilled laborers is relatively 
larger in establishments such as table factories, where the work 
is simple and admits of much specialization. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 



175 



In the finishing department are to be found unskilled men and 
boys engaged as stainers, sanders, and rubbers. 

Nothing can be offered these so-called unskilled laborers, 
which would help them directly, or the employer indirectly, in 
their present position. Work of such a nature can be offered 
them, however, that the boy of average ability will be able to 
advance himself and to fill his new position creditably. 



B. Planing Mills 

Occupational classification of workers. In Table II the plan- 
ing mill workers are classified by occupation, and according to 

Table II — Number of Skilled, Semi-skilled and Unskilled Planing 

Mill Workers Classified by Occupations and Rate of 

Wages per Hour 



Occupation 


Rate 

of 
wages 

per 
hour 


Number of Workers 




Total 


Skilled 


Semi- 
skilled 


Un- 
skilled 


Total 




169 
1 
4 

1 
9 


57 
1 


67 


45 




.35 

.32^ 

.35 

.32^ 




Band scroll sawyer 


4 
1 

9 




Belt sander 




Bench hands 










• 37H 
.32^ 


19 
6 
8 
5 


15 

8 


4 

6 














.32^ 


5 












5 

4 
5 
5 

1 
12 
6 
8 
7 
4 
2 
4 
7 
4 
3 
4 


5 
5 






Jointer 


-32^ 
.37 

• 323^ 

• 32^ 
.18 
.20 
.32^ 
.35 
.40 
.40 
.35 
.35 

• 32H 
.45 
.30 


4 




Molder or stickerman 




Mortiser 


5 

1 




Primers and glaziers 






12 


Rip sawyer 


5 

4 
2 
2 
5 

3 


6 
8 
2 




Rough surfacer 




Sash and door makers 














Shaper 


2 

2 
4 








Tenoner 








Variety sawyer 


4 








Yard men 


.15 

.45 


33 
2 






33 




2 













176 Evansville Vocational Survey 

skill, rate of wages per hour being given for each occupational 
group. 

Machines to be found in a planing mill. The following ma- 
chines found generally in the planing mills have been described 
in the preceding section: Rough surfacer, swing saw, rip saw, 
hand jointer and power feed automatic jointer, cabinet surfacer, 
tenoner, mortiser, dovetailer, borers, moulding machines or sticker, 
shaper, universal wood worker, equalizer or double cut-off saw, 
jig saw, band resaw, drum sander, disc sander, spindle sander, 
belt polishing sander, and a wood turning machine. 

There are to be found in the planing mills a few special ma- 
chines, such as special small stickers for cutting window sashes; 
routers, used for making gains for the header and sill of window 
frames, and for making pulley stiles; sash router and boring ma- 
chines, used in making the grooves for sash cords; gainers, used 
for window and door frames; and socket cutting machines. 

Machine hands. By the use of the various machines, employees 
in this industry plane the lumber, saw it into lengths, widths and 
shapes, mortise and tenon the parts of doors, sash and blinds; 
make mouldings; turn spindles, posts and balusters; and sandpaper 
or smooth material or finished product. A first-class machine 
hand is able to operate any of the machines usually found in a 
factory, and is supposed also to be able to keep his machines in 
order. In the smaller establishments, and in the shops doing a 
high grade of work, the machine hands often, if not generally, 
actually use different machines, as the character of their work 
may require, one man doing all the machine work on a given piece 
of work. In larger establishments, when there is a greater divi- 
sion of labor, a man will be employed continuously on one ma- 
chine and may know nothing about the operation of any other. 

There is very little physical or nervous strain involved in the 
industry and if a man's health is normal when he enters it, no 
detrimental effects are likely to develop. Notwithstanding the 
extensive use of machinery, the liability to serious accident is not 
as great in this industry as in some other lines of work, wood- 
working being ranked by the casualty companies twelfth from 
the lowest risk among all the trades studied by the Survey. 

The larger majority of planing mill workers are American 
trained men, averaging in age about forty-five years. The ma- 
chine hands are mostly American born and have picked up their 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 177 

trade through observation and practice in the mills. In age these 
men will average considerably higher than the furniture-makers. 

In the entire eight establishments, no real apprentice system 
is maintained. As a general rule, new workers are obtained 
through the "try-out" methods. A man comes to an establish- 
ment for work, sometimes in answer to an advertisement, and is 
tested by a trial. If he makes good and is satisfied, he is retained. 
If not, he is dropped and another man tried. 

Machine feeders. The work of the feeder is that of taking 
the lumber from the truck or dolly, and feeding it into the ma 
chine. His skill lies in his ability to determine quickly the posi- 
tion that the board should be given in order to get the best results. 
It frequently happens that he must turn the board over or even 
turn it end for end. On what are known as slow machines, it is 
possible for the feeder to place the boards in position to get the 
very best results and highest grade of product, but a feeder of a 
fast machine must place the boards practically as they come to 
him. 

Bench hands. The men engaged in this occupation are known 
also as benchmen, bench carpenters, shop carpenters, inside car- 
penters, and cabinet makers. Most of the work is done at a 
bench, as distinguished from building or outside carpentering 
work. These employees make doors, sash, blinds, window frames 
and cabinets, fitting and putting together the parts that have 
previously been prepared by machine hands. They also shape 
and form such articles as can not be made by machines. In some 
shops work is done by hand that in other establishments is done 
by machinery. In most establishments men are employed who 
are able to work interchangeably at the bench and at the ma- 
chines. 

Unskilled laborers. The work of unskilled laborers about 
the planing mills is of a miscellaneous character, such as handling 
lumber material and the finished product. There are men known 
as stackers, who store the lumber in the yard for air drying. 
These men work in pairs. One, standing on the stack which he 
is building, receives the boards from the other, who stands on the 
ground and passes the boards to him one by one. In piling the 
lumber, transverse sticks are placed at intervals between the 
layers in order to permit the passage of air through the piles, 
and thus expedite the drying. An occasional mill delivers the 
lumber to the yard on wagons, which dump the load in the drive- 
way, and men remove this and stack or pile it. 

12—6543 



178 Evans ville Vocational Survey 

The shed stackers take care of storing the kiln-dried lumber. 
They stack or pile the product in much the same way as the men 
working in the yard, except that no transverse strips are placed 
between the successive layers of boards. The men who remove 
the lumber to trucks from the cars which come from the dry 
kilns are known as "unstackers." These trucks carry the lumber 
to the dry shed for storage, or to the planing mill for further 
manufacture. 

C. Lumber Mills 

Conditions of employment. The wages of common labor in 
the lumber industry is at the rate of fifteen cents per hour. The 
sawyer receives forty cents per hour, the filer fifty cents per 
hour, and the edgerman twenty-five cents per hour. The labor 
employed is largely unskilled common labor, probably one-half 
of the workers being negroes. The only skilled laborers are saw 
filers and one or two sawyers for each mill — these men being 
usually old employees who have grown up with the business— 
and the inspectors in the yards who must know how to grade and 
measure lumber. 

The industry as a whole is not very steady as it is dependent 
on the demand for lumber, the ability of the men employed in 
the timber section to get out logs, and to some extent on the 
weather. At times for several months duration very little work 
is done in any of the mills. 

Very little can be done for the employees of the saw mills, 
since the only skilled men are practically out of reach so far as 
night school work is concerned and the remainder of the labor 
employed requires no education. It is easily seen that the school 
can do nothing for these men in a vocational way. 

The method of securing the lumber is as follows : Representa- 
tives of the mills go out over the country and buy the lumber in 
the tree. It is then cut and shipped to Evansville. Some of the 
lumber which is bought along the east end of the Ohio river and 
the Green river, a tributary of the Ohio, is rafted to this city. 
These rafts consist of a great number of logs fastened together 
at each end by means of saplings through which wooden pegs are 
driven into each log separately. 

Pond men. From two to four men are employed at the pond. 
These men cut the saplings so that the logs remain in groups of 
four. They propel this group to the foot of the incline and fasten 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 179 

a cable, which is operated by machine power, to it. This cable 
draws the logs up to the log deck. The men stand on a board 
walk barely above the surface of the pond, on a small flatboat, 
or even on the floating logs themselves to do their work, and 
use long pike poles to propel the logs. Incidentally, these men 
raise the logs which may have sunk in the pond and carry them 
to the machine by means of a crane. 

Deck men. Two men take care of the logs after they reach 
the deck. They apply the power which draws the group of logs 
up the incline. They loosen the cable and separate the logs by 
cutting the pegs which hold the logs together. It is their duty 
to keep the logs straight on the log deck and to roll them down 
for loading on the carriage. The deck inclines downward to the 
carriage in order that gravity may do a good deal of the work of 
rolling down, but irregularities in the logs make the work of the 
deck men necessary. 

The head sawyer. All of the sawing in this city is done with 
large band saws. These saws are eight to ten inches wide and 
run on two heavy steel wheels from four to six feet in diameter. 
The saw becomes heated by friction and the temperature is re- 
duced by a constant spray of water which is thrown against it. 
It is the duty of the head sawyer to control the speed of the saw, 
the movements of the carriage holding the log, and also the 
"nigger," a power appliance used to lift the log to the carriage. 
The log is rolled down the inclined deck against the carriage. 
The "nigger" is so located that it rests a little to the side of the 
horizontal center line through the log and under the half away 
from the carriage. By the application of power this heavy bar of 
iron rises vertically through the floor and rolls the log up on the 
carriage, where it is securely clamped. The sawyer must use his 
judgment as to the best side from which to start sawing. A log may 
be bowed, in which case he must place it so as to avoid binding 
the saw and at the same time get the greatest amount of 
lumber out of the log. If the log does not rest properly on the 
carriage it is possible to turn it with the "nigger," which is sup- 
plied with hinged spurs, which are so adjusted as to catch in the 
surface of the log as the "nigger" rises, and releases their hold 
as it is lowered. The sawyer must use his levers with good judg- 
ment, and his efficiency depends in part upon his ability to make 
the manipulations of the "nigger" sure and timely, but above 
all, upon his ability to determine how to saw the log with the 



180 Evansville Vocational Survey 

least waste and get from it the most desirable size and quality of 
lumber. The successful working of the entire plant depends upon 
the sawyer more than upon any other one wage worker in the mill. 
The carriage men, known as setter and dogger,, work under the 
sawyer's direction. Some of the mills have two sawyers who 
work interchangeably. 

Carriage men (setters and doggers). The work of the ear- 
riage requires at least two men. They secure the log in place 
when it has been lifted to the carriage by means of the "nigger." 
This is done by means of barbs or "dogs" located in the headlocks 
at each end of the carriage. These "dogs" are operated through 
levers. A downward movement of the lever drives them into the 
log and secures it to place, while an upward movement releases 
the log for turning. It is the duty of the setter to move the log 
into position for each successive line to be sawed. He does this 
by means of a ratchet connected with the head blocks by a shaft 
and cogs. The ratchet is turned by a lever, and it has a gradu- 
ated dial and indicator by which the setter determines when the 
log is in position for the desired cut. No special training is re- 
quired on the part of the setter. The sawyer indicates what thick- 
ness of lumber is desired and the setter needs simply to work the 
lever which shifts the logs to the place indicated on the graduated 
dial. The work of the setter is considered more complicated than 
that of the dogger, yet in most mills they work interchangeably 
at setting the log, and receive the same wages. 

Saw tailers. The slabs, the boards, and the timbers must be 
removed promptly from the band and circular saws and the ac- 
complishment of this work is the chief duty of the saw tailer. 
The actual removal of the material is achieved by "live rolls," 
but some of the material takes a diagonal position on the rolls 
as it falls from the saw. and the saw tailor must straighten this 
so that it will go straight over them. To do this he uses a short- 
handled, sharp pointed hook, with which he catches the rear end 
of the timber, board or slab, and moves it toward or from him, 
as the case may be, so that it will run straight. Slabs do not run 
well over the rolls with the bark side down, so the saw tailer, 
using his hook, gives the slab a quick pull from the lower edge 
just as it is cut off and causes it to fall face down. 

The boards take the same course as the slabs, over the live 
rolls, but do no1 continue the full course. The transfer is made 
by the snw tailer by means of two levers. The one lifts a stop 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 181 

on the roll table and bars the progress of the boards, while 
the other lifts a set of transfer chains which run across the live 
rolls and pick up the boards and deposit them in front of tho 
edger. In some cases the saw taller also removes the slabs from 
the live rolls to the slasher conveyor with the same kind of device 
used for transferring the boards to the edger. In other cases this 
work is done by the slasher man. 

A band mill has a guide through which the band saw runs, to 
hold it steady and cause it to run true through the log. The posi- 
tion of this guide is immediately above the log and of course to 
meet this demand the guide must be adjustable. It is the duty of 
the saw tailer to adjust this guide, which he does with a lever. 
This duty does not apply in the case of a circular saw, but every 
other duty is the same in both types of mill. 

Edgermen. The edger is a machine having adjustable saws, 
used to remove the rough edges from the boards and to reduce 
them to specified widths. One man operates this machine. He is 
known as the edgerman. The duties of the edgerman are to 
adjust the saws of the edger to cut the desired widths and to feed 
the boards into the machine. He inspects the boards to determine 
the width and adjusts the saws by means of levers. 

Edger tailers. These employees are stationed beside the live 
rolls behind the edger and remove the strips or edgings to the 
slasher conveyor. The conveyor runs beneath the edger roll table 
and at right angles to it, so the edgings are simply pulled off the 
side of the roll table and dropped on the conveyor. 

Slasher men. The slabs and edgings are thrown on a con- 
veyor and carried laterally through the slasher, where they are cut 
into stove wood and chair stock of different lengths. The chair 
stock lengths are sold to chair factories to be used for rounds, 
etc. An employee who attends this conveyor and keeps the ma- 
terial going smoothly is called a slasher man. 

Sawyers, resaw. As has been pointed out, some mills con- 
serve a part of the waste by resawing all slabs that are thick 
enough to make one or more short boards, while others relieve 
their band or circular saw by making the boards double the de- 
sired thickness and reducing their heavy stock by the resaw. For 
resawing slabs, the machine is usually a horizontal band saw and 
for resawing heavy stock a vertical one is used. 



182 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The resaw sawyer lias charge of the operation of resawing and 
introduces the slabs face down to the machine, while the heavy 
boards are fed into the resaw edge down. 

Sawyer helpers, resaw. When conditions demand it, one 
helper or more assists the sawyer in placing the slabs in position 
on the resaw table. 

Trimmer operators. The trimmer is a machine used to cut 
boards to standard length and to square the ends of them. It 
has saws set at intervals of two feet across and above or below 
the surface of the machine. The board goes across the machine 
sidewise, and such saw as is desired to cut the board is raised into 
position by the operator. 

This employee usually occupies a pulpit located several feet in 
front of the trimmer and immediately over the conveyor. He 
accomplishes his work in different ways, depending on the con-' 
struction of the machine. Some machines have cords properly 
attached with ends hanging in front of the operator, who pulls 
the cord controlling the saw which he desires to bring into opera- 
tion; some have levers which accomplish the same work; while 
others have a keyboard and keys communicating pneumatically 
with the mechanism of the machine. In a small mill the saw oper- 
ator helps to load the trimmer and operates the saws by means of 
foot levers located near the floor at the loader's position. 

Trimmer loaders. The chain transfer which conveys the lum- 
ber to the trimmer, ends at the front of the trimmer. Two men, 
called trimmer loaders, stand here on opposite sides of the con- 
veyor and lift the lumber from the conveyor to the trimmer. 
They place it so that it will be drawn to the saws regularly and 
in position to be trimmed most economically. 

Other employees are engaged behind the trimmer to keep the 
product! running smoothly on the sorting chain and the waste 
going into the burner conveyor. 

From the trimmer the product passes over a long sorting table, 
or sorting chain, as it is frequently called, and one or more labor- 
ers are usually employed on this to take care of entanglements 
and move short stock over to one side. 

Butting saw and roll men. The men who come immediately 
after the live roll and are the first ones to handle timbers leaving 
the mill are sometimes called butting saw men. The men who 
move the timbers over the rolls from the saw mill to the yard are 
called roll men or roller men. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 183 

D. Special Lines of Woodworking 

A few special lines of woodworking are established in the city, 
including two tank and seat factories, two trunk factories, a cas- 
ket factory and a box factory. 

Tank and seat factories. The tank and seat factories manu- 
facture bathroom fixtures and are really a branch of a pottery 
works to be found in this city. A specialty is made, however, 
of toilet seats. About one hundred men are employed in this 
industry. Fifty of these are bench hands, the remainder operate 
machines. The machine operators shift from one machine to an- 
other and the man is considered most valuable who can shift 
from one machine to another with the least loss of efficiency. 

Day wages are paid in the tank and seat works, while at the 
potteries wages are paid by the piece. The wages run from twelve 
to fifteen dollars per week. Three or four boys, that are over 
sixteen years of age, work here and receive a w T age of about six 
dollars per week. The help is usually selected from the boys of 
the neighborhood who are always anxious to get a job in the 
factory. It is the foreman 's duty to hire the men. There is little 
shifting of men, the labor turnover being not more than 5 per 
cent per year. There is no dull season. The employers in this 
industry are willing to co-operate in the conduct of vocational 
courses. 

Trunk factories. The two trunk factories in the city employ 
approximately seventy-five men. Agents of the Survey visited 
only one of these factories, but learned that the product, number 
employed and operations were practically the same in both estab- 
lishments. The superintendent of the factory visited, stated that 
they were employing forty men and four girls. Five men were 
engaged in preparing the stock by sawing it to lengths and 
sanding it. Two men were engaged in putting fiber on boards 
which are used in making fiber-covered trunks. Three men were 
engaged in nailing up boxes and trays. In this department a 
man is engaged in "first coating" boards before they are assem- 
bled. Ten or twelve employees are engaged in upfitting or put- 
ting on hardware. Four girls who work in this department 
do lining work and are assisted by from three to five men. A 
large stock of trunks is kept on hand to provide for future 
demands for different kinds of trunks. Most of the work is piece 
work. The workers receive from nine to eighteen dollars per 



184 Evansville Vocational Survey 

week. Not a great deal can be offered in a vocational school 
which would be of special benefit to the worker or his employer, 
as the work requires only a special manipulative skill, which can 
be best acquired in the shop. 

Casket factory. This establishment makes a general line of 
caskets, cloth covered for the most part, and carries a stock of 
from 300 to 500 caskets. About twenty-five men are employed. 
Eight to ten of these are in the machine room and do both ma- 
chine work and assembling. Four or five men are engaged in 
covering caskets, which requires some degree of skill. The cloth 
is glued at the corners and stretched over the casket. Three or 
four girls are engaged in lining the caskets and there is one 
varnisher for the few oak caskets which are made. There are 
no yard men as the lumber which comes to them in the rough 
stock is inspected by the purchaser and is ready for use. One 
man sets the hardware. There are no boys under eighteen with 
the exception of one in the covering department, who is learning 
this trade. Apprentices are usually well paid, receiving $1.00 per 
day of eight hours at the start and working up to as high as fifteen 
or eighteen dollars per week. The wages of the men run from 
twenty to twenty-eight cents per hour. This does not include the 
foreman. The girls receive from four to ten dollars per week. No 
trouble is experienced in getting men. Men are not often turned 
off. They are even retained during the dull season, which comes 
during the summer. Instruction in reading blueprints would not 
interest men in this factory because they work to pattern. These 
patterns change from year to year. All the moulding work is 
done on machines. The manager of this factory stated that this 
concern would willingly lend its assistance in developing vocational 
education. 

Box factory. This establishment is engaged in the manufac- 
ture of wire bound and nailed boxes. A few boxes are dovetailed. 
No painting is done outside of printing on the boxes. Fifty to 
sixty men and boys are employed. The men shift from one 
machine to another, and ability to do this is a factor in their 
efficiency. Some of the work is piece work, such as rip sawing, 
cross cutting, and nailing. The boys receive 90c to $1.00 per day. 
After a few months or a year they are advanced to $1.25. The 
men receive from $1.50 to $2.50 per day. A representative of this 
firm said: "What our men need is shop arithmetic, so that they 
will be able to read figures intelligently. There is no question 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 185 

but that this would help the men individually, and our concern 
indirectly. I am heartily in favor of lecture courses for foremen. 
I think, too, that men should know something about lumber — 
why we use poplar, cottonwood, and gum, rather than some other 
kind of wood in our work. I am heartily in sympathy with the 
Vocational Survey and the object for which it is striving." 



II. BUILDING TRADES 



1. General Findings 

Importance of the building trades. The kind and number 
of establishments, number of journeymen and apprentices in the 
building trades is shown in Table III. 



Table III — Establishments and Employees, Journeymen and Ap- 
prentices in the Building Trades, Classified by Trades 



Trade 



Total 

Bricklaying 

Carpentering 

Cement and concrete work . . . 

Electrical work 

Painting 

Paperhanging 

*Plastering 

Plumbing and steamfitting . . . 

Sheet metal work 

Stone cutting 

Structural steel and iron work 



Estab- 
lish- 
ments 



186 

8 

30 

6 

8 

77 

12 

6 

18 

14 

5 

2 



Employees 



Total 



509 

133 

609 

39 

49 

306 

63 

58 

93 

84 

25 

50 



Journey 
men 



,397 

125 

600 

35 

29 

300 

60 

56 

53 

64 

25 

50 



Appren- 
tices 



112 



4 
20 
6 
3 
2 

to 

20 



*General contractors do their own plastering. 

During the year 1915, there were 1,467 building permits issued 
in Evansville, the number of permits issued in this year being 125 
greater than the number issued the year preceding. The con- 
struction cost covered by the 1915 permits was $2,252,557 as com- 
pared with a construction cost for the year preceding of $1,209,781. 
The permits of 1915 thus represented a construction cost greater 
than that of 1914 by $1,042,776. 

Statistical data relative to building construction show that 
in these two years Evansville ranked second among cities in the 
United States in per capita construction cost of building under 
permits issued. 

The figures covering aggregate building operations in Evans- 
ville for the years 1914 and 1915 indicate that the building trades 

187 



188 Evansville Vocational Sukvey 

in this community provide a large field of employment, and it 
seems probable that the demand for labor from year to year will 
increase. 

Product. The product of the building trades is in a large 
sense the city of Evansville itself — its homes, stores, factories, 
public buildings, and thoroughfares— and their effect is the com- 
fort, health and safety of the people of Evansville in the home 
and in the factory or store. Upon these trades the community 
depends for the construction of its homes and workshops; for the 
installation of hygienic plumbing systems of water and waste 
piping; for safe wiring for electric lighting; for heat and power 
transmission systems; for the construction of fire escapes and ele- 
vator enclosures; and for the installation of street lighting, tele- 
graph and telephone systems. 

Standardization of product. It will be obvious that in the 
proper sense there can be no complete standardization of product 
in the building trades. Each building constructed must be 
adapted to special needs and conditions, as a dwelling or with 
reference to commercial or industrial requirements. The mate- 
rials used are various and each building presents special problems 
as regards its structure, its exterior and interior decoration, its 
plumbing and the installation of light, heat and power transmis- 
sion systems. The builder assembles and utilizes the standardized 
products of all industries, but his own product is essentially un- 
standardized. 

Characteristics of the trades. The building trades are essen- 
tially handicrafts, dependent upon the use of hand tools, rather 
than of machines. 

It should be remarked that in Evansville, as compared with 
cities farther north, these trades are characterized by less violent 
seasonal fluctuations, and that employment in them is, therefore, 
more constant throughout the year. In many lines of work, oper- 
ations continue uninterruptedly throughout the winter. 

Specialization of processes. The occupational analyses for the 
building trades indicate that the division of labor has not been 
carried to such extremes as are found in some other communities. 
The carpenter, for example, in Evansville must on occasion be a 
framer, a joiner, a stair builder, a parquet-floor layer and a hard- 
wood finisher. The concrete worker supervises the mixing of the 
concrete, sets forms, and finishes and works on floors, side- 
walks, copings, steps, arches, subways and bridges ; the electrical 



SUMMABY^OF FINDINGS AS TO InDUSTHIKS 189 

worker installs various systems of wiring; and in other trades 
the worker performs a variety of services, each of which in larger 
communities may itself constitute a trade or occupation. 

Development of the trades. The future development of the 
building trades is dependent upon the growth of the city of Evans- 
ville, which in turn is dependent upon the growth of Evansville 's 
industries. These industries are factors contributing to the city's 
growth, while the building trades are in general dependent upon 
and limited by that growth. There is, for example, no limit to 
the development in the future of the furniture and woodworking 
industries in Evansville, other than such limits as are determined 
by the capacity of Evansville manufacturers and workers. In 
proportion as the profits and wages of these industries and the 
working force employed by them increase, greater demands will 
be made upon the building trades. A promise of rapid develop- 
ment of the trades in the future is formed in the statistics, given 
in a preceding section, of building operations under permits issued 
in the years 1914 and 1915. 

Labor supply. Generally in these trades some system of ap- 
prenticeship obtains as a partial means of recruiting the labor 
supply. In many lines of work the supply of labor is inadequate. 
This is the case especially in certain lines of work which are of 
recent development in modern building construction. The build- 
ing trades of Evansville, as of other communities, have undergone 
in recent years radical changes, which have occasioned a consider- 
able displacement of the labor supply and mal-adjustment of sup- 
ply to demand. The character of buildings erected during the 
past three years has, in fact, been such as to displace workers 
whose knowledge of modern building construction was inade- 
quate. This displacement of labor has affected sheet metal workers, 
structural iron workers, plumbers, steamfitters, cement finish- 
ers, and stone workers. The situation may be summed up in 
the statement that there is a scarcity of labor skilled in the meth- 
ods of modern building construction. 

Requirements of modern building construction. Building con- 
struction in Evansville until recently required of the worker 
knowledge of building in brick and wood only, but the advent 
of modern building construction has created a demand for new 
sorts of skill in manipulating modern appliances and appur- 
tenances, and for knowledge of new methods and materials of 
construction. Not only has the advent of structural steel, stone, 



190 Evansville Vocational Survey 

cement and sheet metal as building materials imposed new pro- 
cesses upon the building trades, but as well the employment of 
new materials for interior decoration and furnishing. The men 
engaged in these trades are in fact under pressure to adapt them- 
selves to entirely new conditions. New educational requirements 
for these trades have accordingly developed out of the modifica- 
tion of practical methods in recent years. The development of 
vocational courses and modification of practical methods of train- 
ing apprentices are necessary to meet these new requirements. 

In almost every line the building trades worker must, under 
modern conditions, be more than a handicraftsman, since he must 
utilize in his work extensive technical knowledge of materials, of 
the principles of building construction, of electrical engineering, 
and of scientific systems of heating, lighting and plumbing. 

Efficiency as a condition of advancement. The building trades 
are all of them trades requiring an apprenticeship training. For 
the worker who has acquired a thorough knowledge of his trade, 
advancement is assured and for those workers who are endowed 
with qualities of initiative, an independent status may be achieved. 
The journeyman may expect normally to become a master. In 
this respect, conditions in the building trades present exceptional 
opportunities to the worker. 

Wages and hours. The maximum wage for journeymen brick- 
layers is 70c per hour. This is equivalent to a Aveekly wage of 
$30.80, since the men work eight hours per day and four hours 
on Saturday. The wages of apprentices are determined by an 
agreement between the employer and the apprentice. Their wage 
is determined by the service they render the employer. The usual 
beginning wage is $3.00 per week. The union scale for journey- 
men carpenters, of whom there are approximately 600, is $4.00 
per day. Carpenters work eight hours per day, with a short Sat- 
urday of four hours during June, July and August. During his 
first year the carpenter's apprentice earns $1.60 per day; in the 
second year, $2.00 per day; in the third year, $2.75, and in the 
fourth year, $3.50. Cement finishers work nine hours per day, 
54 hours per week. They receive 22 1 /o cents per hour for the 
first year, 27 V2 cents for the second and 35 cents for the third year. 
The union scale for journeymen is 50 cents per hour. They receive 
time and a half for overtime. Electrical workers work eight 
hours straight per day, 48 hours per week. The maximum wage 
for journeymen, of whom there are thirty at present, is 45 cents 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 191 

per hour. The wage of apprentices is determined by agreement 
between the apprentice and the employer. The minimum must 
be not less than 25 cents per hour. The average wage of a paper- 
hanger is $24.00 per week. His wage is determined by piecework 
rates which depend upon the quality of goods and whether the 
work is ceiling or sidewall work. The workers enter this trade 
as apprentices usually between 16 and 18 years of age and serve 
three years. This system is very lax and men often become full- 
fledged journeymen before the period of apprenticeship has 
expired, depending upon their ability to take up the work read- 
ily. The period of maximum productivity is usually between the 
ages of 21 and 55. The number of plasterers in Evansville at 
present is estimated at about 56. There are only two apprentices. 
The union scale for journeymen plasterers in Evansville is $5.00 
per day. The wage of apprentices is not controlled by the union. 
The apprentice receives whatever his employer thinks he is worth. 
Eight hours per day, four hours on Saturday, making a total of 
44 hours per week, is the prevailing time worked. There are 
approximately 50 plumbers, 20 plumber apprentices and 20 steam- 
fitter apprentices. The wages of the apprentice are determined 
by the employer. The union wage for journeymen is $4.50 per 
day. The plumbers in this city work eight hours per day, 44 
hours per week. There are 64 journeymen sheet metal workers 
and twenty apprentices in the trade. The wage of the apprentice 
is determined by an agreement between the employer and the 
apprentice and runs from $6 to $9 per week. Advancement 
depends upon ability to pick up the trade. The wage of the 
journeyman is 42^ cents per hour. The men work eight hours 
per day straight — 48 hours per week. Stonecutters, of whom 
there are ten in Evansville, work nine hours per day, and four 
on Saturday, a total of 49 hours per week. The journeyman's 
wage is from $18 to $21 per week, the union scale being $3.60 
per day of eight hours. The apprentice enters the trade at the 
age of 17 and serves an apprenticeship of four years. The appren- 
tice's wage for the first six months is $2.50 per week, with 50 cents 
per week added every six months during the period of apprentice- 
ship. The structural ironworkers, of whom there are 50 in Evans- 
ville, work 44 hours per week, 8 hours per day, and 4 hours on 
Saturday. Riveters and punchers are paid 35 cents per hour; 
assemblers, erectors, finishers and layout hands receive 60 cents 
per hour. There is no organized apprenticeship system in the 



192 'Evansville Vocational Survey 

structural-steel plants in Evansville, although a few helpers are 
pmployed at a lower wage than the ordinary helper, with the 
understanding that they he given a chance to learn the trad* 3 
if they prove satisfactory. Such helpers or learners are given 
about $1.50 to $2.00 per day, which is increased from time to 
time. They may earn even more than this if they advance from 
one grade of work to another. There is no regular wage for 
unskilled laborers, but generally the wage is from $1.50 to $2.00 
per day. In some classes of work the minimum wage may be 
lower and the maximum higher. Hodcarriers for briekmasons work 
44 hours per week, the regular working time being 8 hours per day, 
and with a short Saturday of 4 hours ; a plasterer's hodcarrier 
generally woi'ks 54 hours per week — 10 per day with a short Satur- 
day of 4 hours; laborers in saw and planing mills work 55 to 60 
hours per week — 10 hours per day, with, in some cases, a short Sat- 
urday of 5 hours. 

Can the schools co-operate? There can be no question as to 
the obligation of the schools to undertake vocational instruction 
for these trades. The reasons for instituting such instruction 
will be obvious from the foregoing account of the conditions 
obtaining in the community. Modern building construction has 
imposed new requirements upon the w r orkers. No one of the 
trades can be thoroughly learned in practice, and bearing upon 
each of the trades there is a fund of knowledge that can most 
advantageously be acquired in systematic vocational courses. 
The trades are essentially community trades, and vocational in- 
struction of the workers is, in a special degree, a public service. 
Improvement of these trades is essential to the well-being of the 
community. It means better and more inexpensively built homes, 
living-rooms conveniently constructed and artistically decorated, 
hygienic plumbing and safe and modern electric wiring. These 
trades administer directly to comfort and health in the home, 
and expenditure of public money for the development of voca- 
tional instruction would be on that account warranted, even 
if it were not warranted by consideration of the interest of the 
workers themselves who are engaged in the trades. 

Courses guaranteed. During the progress of the Survey, con- 
ferences were held with employers and employees in this indus- 
try. The results of these conferences are: (1) Agreement to 
enroll eighteen apprentices for. evening instruction in plumbing 
and steamfittingj (2) agreement to enroll twelve apprentices in 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 193 

a four-evening course in sheet metal work; (3) a guaranty of 
ninety colored men to enroll in evening courses for cement and 
concrete work; (4) a guaranty of fifteen journeymen sheet metal 
workers to enroll in evening courses; (5) a guaranty of fifteen 
journeymen woodworkers on interior finishing; (6) a guaranty 
of fifteen journeymen stationary and hoisting engineers; (7) a 
guaranty of enrollment of nine carpenter's apprentices. 

2. Occupational Analyses 

Bricklaying. The bricklayer in Evansville is commonly ex- 
pected to do any kind of brickwork required in the construction 
of buildings, including the setting of window sills and cap, of 
cut stone or other materials. 

The first essential trade knowledge is that of the kinds of 
bonding employed in the construction of walls. Bonding is the 
art of binding brickwork together so that it will stand up well, 
by properly alternating stretchers and headers, taking care that 
each joint is covered by a solid center above and below and that 
enough transverse bricks are laid to bind together the back and 
front wall. There are many different kinds of bonds, but that 
most used in Evansville is called the "4-inch bond." It consists 
of six or seven courses of stretchers, and then a course of headers, 
care being taken to break joints properly. English and Flemish 
bonds are rarely used in Evansville. The English bond consists 
of alternate courses of stretchers and headers ; the Flemish bond, 
of alternate stretchers and headers in the same course, breaking 
joints with the courses above and below. 

The bricklayer must be proficient not only in the building 
of straight walls, both inside and outside, but also in the raising 
of inside and outside corners; in the carrying up of chimney 
flues, in the building in of window frames; in the construction 
of arches and gables, and in the laying of pressed brick, terra- 
cotta trimmings and other ornamental materials. 

All of this work requires skill in handling the tools of the 
trade, which include trowel, chisel, hammer, plumb, rule, level, 
line and pins, scutch, jointer, brick saw and chopping block — and 
in manipulating the various materials used. 

This trade is more subject to seasonal fluctuations than are 
some others of the building trades. The bricklayers in Evansville 
are well organized. In busy seasons union men are brought in 
from neighboring cities by the union, and in dull seasons men 

13—5543 



194 Evansville Vocational Survey 

are taken away by the union of some nearby city. By means 
of this scheme the unions insure a fair degree of constancy of 
employment. 

The busy season is from March to November, inclusive, and 
the slack season from December to February, inclusive. 

Carpentering. The processes in carpentering require manip- 
ulative skill, and trade and technical knowledge in varying degrees. 
In many communities specialization has gone far in estab- 
lishing distinct trades within the general field of carpentering 
such as, for example, that of the framer, the joiner, the stair 
builder, the parquet-floor laj^er and the hardwood finisher. In 
Evansville, however, while there is some specialization along 
these several lines, the carpenter is in general expected to be 
an all-round carpenter and joiner, and to be more or less proficient 
in all lines of ordinary carpentering. He is expected on occasion 
to stake out a building from specifications, to get out the frame, 
and, in buildings of simple construction, erect it from sill to peak ; 
to weatherboard, shingle and lath ; to build stairs having straight 
lines and square turns ; to do all simple outside and inside finish- 
ing in soft wood, and to fit and hang ordinary sashes, doors and 
blinds. 

The carpenter must work accurately from blueprints or 
specifications, accuracy in following plans and specifications being 
fully as essential, for example, in the rough work of framing up 
buildings as it is in the finer work of inside finishing or stair 
building. The carpenter's work is practically all bench or 
hand-tool work, and requires the use of a great variety of more 
or less complicated tools. A considerable amount of the carpen- 
ter's time is occupied in caring for and sharpening his tools — 
filing his cross-cut, block and rip saws; sharpening his chisels and 
bits of different sizes and shapes, and sharpening and adjusting 
the knives of his planes. 

In Evansville the climate is such that the active season in 
building is prolonged, extending in general from the first of March 
to the end of December, leaving a short slack season extending 
through January and February. 

Approximately 90 per cent of the carpenters are members of 
the Carpenter and Joiners' Union. 

Cement finishing. Cement finishing consists of "floating" and 
"troweling" the surface of cement to. the desired finish. The 
cement finisher, however, does a great variety of other work. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 195 

In concrete floor, sidewalk, coping, steps and similar work the 
"finisher" lays out the work, watches the composition of the 
concrete mixture, "strikes off" the surface of the concrete with 
a straightedge, and "floats" and "trowels" the same. In con- 
crete construction, such as buildings, bridges, subways and arches, 
the finisher supervises the mixing of the concrete, sets all exterior 
forms, runs cement bases, moulding and caps, and, in general, acts 
as a foreman. The work requires considerable physical strength 
and endurance, especially in some work where the finisher must 
work in a stooping position for long periods. Cement working is 
comparatively a new trade, and cement finishing is the most skilled 
occupation in the trade. So far as is known there are no peculiar 
occupational diseases, and the liability to accident on structural 
work is inconsiderable. 

Fluctuation in the demand for cement finishers is governed 
more or less by the activity of building operations, but so far as 
the fluctuation is seasonal, temperature is the governing factor. 
In this climate the period between November 15 and March 15 
is generally too cold for carrying on the work to the best advan- 
tage. 

The demand for efficient skilled finishers is increasing and 
the supply does not meet the demand. Workers are recruited 
from unskilled laborers. 

Electrical work. The electrical worker in Evansville does 
outside and inside wiring. 

Outside wiring embraces installation of all outdoor lines, 
including general electrical power transmission, street lighting, 
telephone, telegraph and signal lines. There are two general 
types of outside wiring — aerial, in which the wires or cables are 
supported high in the air on poles or other suitable devices, 
and underground, in which the wires or cables are laid in con- 
duits. 

Inside wiring embraces the preparing for and the putting up 
of electric wires for all purposes, so long as the work is done 
within the confines of some structure. The installation of the 
appliances, and fixtures for which the wires are run, is gen- 
erally included in the inside wireman's work, as well as 
installation for lighting, heating, power, telephones, bells and 
signals. There are four general types of inside wiring, namely: 
Open work, in which the wires are exposed to view, and are 



196 Evansville Vocational Survey 

mounted on cleats or knobs; moulding work, in which the wires 
are run in a special moulding made either of wood or metal; 
concealed work (knob and tube), in which the wires are run 
in partitions and other places not exposed to view and are insu- 
lated by means of knobs and tubes; and conduit and armored 
cable work, in which the wires are run in metal pipes called 
conduits or are themselves protected by an integral metal coating 
or armor. The above classification does not include all forms 
of electrical work, as there are some specialized occupations which 
do not fall under the above heads, such as, for example, power- 
house work. 

In general, electrical work, except work with high-tension cur- 
rents, does not involve any peculiar physical or nervous strain. 
Practically all work is of a character to stimulate the interest 
of the worker in an exceptional degree. This is due in part to 
the newness of the trade, which is still in the formative stage, 
but it is due largely to the fact that the electrical worker utilizes 
constantly in his work a considerable fund of technical knowledge. 

The demand for electrical workers is steady, the busy season 
being during the winter and spring months. 

Painting. The work of the painter in Evansville is not mate- 
rially different from that done by painters in other communities, 
although railway car painting may be designated as a special line of 
work employing a considerable number of men. In general, the 
work of the trade embraces inside and outside painting of build- 
ings; decorating; painting of bridges, tanks, structural iron work, 
agricultural implements and furniture. 

There are approximately 300 men in the trade, including 6 
apprentices. About 275 of these belong to the union. This num- 
ber does not include the painters at wo^ in the wagon, carriage 
and furniture factories, nor those at work in the railroad shops. 

The work of the painter is not generally such as involves 
any peculiar physical or nervous strain other than that involved 
in any sort of manual labor. Moreover, the work of the all-round, 
well-trained painter is sufficiently varied to stimulate interest, 
much of it requiring the exercise of high-grade skill and of artistic 
sense. In some Evansville shops, however, the work is to a con- 
siderable extent specialized, one man doing the rough work of 
burning or scraping off old finish, sandpapering and putting on 
body coats, another filling, staining and varnishing, and another 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 197 

striping and lettering. In house painting, also, one set of men 
may be employed entirely on rough work. 

House painters may, in general, be divided into two classes 
— brush hands, who do only rough outside work, and whose only 
trade qualification is ability to cover extensive surfaces, and 
skilled artisans, who understand the mixing of paints and can do 
any sort of inside or outside work. 

The first step in house painting, as in other painting, is prep- 
aration of the surface to be covered. In new work this consists 
in cleaning and smoothing the surface with sandpaper and duster. 
In old work the first step is removal of old finishing coats of 
paint or varnish, which is commonly done by burning with a Bun- 
sen burner and scraping, or by applying paint or varnish solvents, 
and scraping. Surfaces from which old finishes have been re- 
moved must then be sandpapered until perfectly smooth. When 
the wood has been laid bare, smoothed and cleaned, it is ready 
for the priming coat of white lead, ochre or other pigments mixed 
with linseed oil to the proper consistency. The color is selected 
for the priming coat with reference to the color of the coats that 
are to follow. 

The priming coat is worked well into cracks and nail holes 
to protect these broken surfaces and is allowed to dry, after 
which cracks and holes are filled with putty, which adheres well 
to the paint. Two more coats of the required color are then 
applied, the number and composition of the final coats depending 
upon the class of work. 

In graining, the surface is first given at least two coats of 
paint, tinted according to the kind of wood to be imitated. The 
second coat of ground color is made to dry with a gloss, so that 
the graining mixture will not, by being absorbed, make the grain 
appear dingy. After the ground color is thoroughly dry, the 
graining mixture, of a color to suit the kind of wood to be imi- 
tated, is applied, and before drying the coarse grain is made by 
drawing a graining comb of leather or gutta-percha over the 
surface. The surface is then worked over with a fine steel grain- 
ing comb in the same direction. The heavier figures of the grain 
are made by wiping out the graining mixture with the thumb 
covered by a piece of cloth. A fine bristle brush is finally passed 
lightly over the surface to blend or soften the heavy lines, and 
imitate as nearly as possible the grain of the natural wood. 



198 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Paperhanging. At present there are about 60 paperhangers 
in Evansville, practically all of whom, are members of the local 
organization. 

This trade includes the hanging of all paper or other fabrics 
used for covering walls, the preparation of walls to receive the 
same and the placing in position of finished wall mouldings. 
After the old paper has been removed and the wall scraped, all 
cracks and depressions are filled up and smoothed with a mixture 
of plaster of paris and patent plaster, and all angles pointed up ; 
the wall is sized by covering with a coat of thin liquid glue, which 
is allowed to dry before the paper is hung. The new paper is 
now laid on a table and the paste applied with a paste brush. 
This paste is made of wheat flour, alum and water. After the 
paper is pasted, it is folded and allowed to soak for a short time. 
If this is not done, the paper will blister when put up. The paper 
is now placed in position on the wall and pressed down smooth 
with a dry brush, beginning at the top and working toward the 
bottom. 

The occupation is not in any considerable degree a seasonal 
occupation, since, although the busiest season is from March 15 
to June 1, and from September 1 to November 1, the work holds 
fairly steady throughout the year. 

Plastering. Plastering covers both the plastering of plain sur- 
faces, such as walls and ceilings, and ornamental work, such as 
cornices, mouldings and panels. In this work the hawk, trowel 
and other tools of the trade are used. Patent or prepared plaster 
is almost entirely used in Evansville, but the trade embraces all 
work, both plain and ornamental, when done with stucco, cement, 
lime mortars or patent materials; artificial marble work and compo 
work in all its branches. 

The work upon flat surfaces is usually designated three-coat 
work. The first coat consists of plaster containing hair. This 
coat is put on well "scratched" and roughly smoothed. When 
the first coat is dry, the second coat, which is like the first, except 
that it contains no hair, is put on very thin and floated. The third, 
or finish, coat, which consists of lime and plaster of paris, is put 
on very thin and the surface smoothly finished. 

Cornice, moulding and other ornamental work is usually run 
in place, using plaster consisting of lime and plaster of paris, 
stucco or other material. 



Summary op Findings as to Industries 199 

The busy season is from March to November, inclusive, and 
the slack season from December to February, inclusive. 

Plastering is considered an extremely healthful occupation, 
as the work is not excessively heavy and does not involve eye 
or nerve strain; neither is there danger from machinery nor 
from handling poisonous materials. The work is considerably 
varied in its character and the best class of work stimulates the 
interest of the worker. 

Apprentices and learners usually enter the trade at the ages 
of 18 and 19 and serve an apprenticeship of four years. During 
the apprenticeship the learner progresses from rough to orna- 
mental work as his ability will permit. All that the boy acquires 
during this time is the manipulative skill necessary to apply the 
plaster, no provision being made for the systematic instruction 
of either journeymen or apprentices. 

Plumbing and Steamfitting. In Evansville the work in the 
plumbing trade covers all work on water, gas and sewer systems 
from the street main to and beyond the house line. This consists 
of setting up in buildings and residences all plumbing fixtures 
and their appurtenances, such as water filters, water meters, hot- 
water tanks, suction tanks, sump tanks, cold-water tanks, bath- 
tubs, showers, washbasins, sinks, water-closets and urinals; also 
all toilet and bathroom auxiliaries, such as paper-holders, glass 
shelves, medicine closets, towel racks, and soap and sponge hold- 
ers. The plumber installs water, gas and waste piping for laundry 
machines, compressed-air systems, waste-water leaders, soil and 
vent lines, and sewerage drains within and beyond the house line 
to the street main. 

The plumber also does steamfitting work, which consists of 
running lines of pipe, cutting pipe to length, threading pipe in 
preparation for the necessary joints and connections, fitting joints, 
and placing and connecting fixtures. 

The busy season for plumbers is from May to August, inclu- 
sive, and the slack season from September to April, inclusive, 
but there is very little fluctuation in employment. 

Practically all of the plumbers in Evansville belong to the 
union. 

The tools most commonly used by plumbers are the following : 
The shave hook, for cleaning the tarnish from pipe in preparation 
for wiping the joint; the ladle, for handling molten lead; the 
cloths, for wiping joints; the tap borer, used to tap pipe for 



200 Evansville Vocational Survey 

branch lines; the calking tools, yarning iron and right, left and 
main facing tools; the asbestos joint rnnner, for running molten 
lead into horizontal pipe joints; tools for setting fixtures; 8, 10, 
14 and 18-inch pipe wrenches; the strap wrench, for handling 
nickel-plated fixtures; level, plumb bob, screw driver, brace and 
drills ; li/4, 1M> and 2-inch springs for making bends in waste 
pipe ; hammer and cold chisel, for cutting soil pipe ; hack, compass 
and tenon saws; gasoline furnace for heating lead, and stock and 
dies for threading pipe. 

During the apprenticeship in the first year and part of the 
second the apprentice serves as a handy man, helping on the 
work in any way possible, and thus learning the tools and their 
uses, and the sizes and uses of the various kinds of pipe ; and 
in the last part of the second year he will be allowed to calk 
soil pipe and do some little lead work; in the third year he will 
do any work of this kind of which he is capable, and in the 
fourth year he is put out on jobs by himself. 

The work of the plumber is physically exacting. It presents, 
however, constant opportunities for the utilization of extensive 
technical knowledge. 

Sheet metal ivork. The processes of the sheet metal workers' 
trade are the following: In flat work, the selection of proper 
gauge of material to use; the bending of lock joint by use of 
folder or brake ; the laying of the tin, and the closing of the joint 
by use of mallet and seamers, or roofing tongs. If a solder joint 
is necessary, the soldering fluid is applied to joint or lap, gener- 
ally by the use of a feather, and the flux sprinkled on. The sheets 
are lapped, the solder stick is held directly over the joint, and 
the soldering iron is applied to the stick, melting the solder and 
causing it to run on the joint, thus fusing together the pieces. 

In tinware or house-furnishing goods work, a pattern is first 
made and cut, making allowances for seam or lock joint and turn- 
up for the purpose of wiring, or for hem at top or bottom. Some- 
times it is necessary to make allowances for thickness of metal, 
when bent, but materials that gauge from 20 to 30, inclusive, 
require no allowances either for bending or rolling. 

Wiring may be done either by hand or machine. The edge 
to be wired is first notched at an angle in one place, and with 
a pair of pliers the edge at this point is turned up, the wire 
laid in and the edge bent over snugly around the wire, to hold 
wire in position until it is stretched around the article and the 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 201 

edge turned over to make the finish. The lock seam is made on 
the groover, the double seam either by hand or machine. Either 
the lock or double seam may be used when bottom and sides 
are joined together. 

The processes are practically the same in sheet metal and 
cornice making as in tinware work. The variations occur in the 
making of patterns, because in sheet-metal work, the material 
being heavier, allowance has to be made for the thickness of 
the material, where the material is bent or rolled in machines. 
In sheet-metal work the metals used may be galvanized iron or 
steel, boiler plate, zinc, copper or brass. Band iron is used for 
reinforcing, and square or round rods for bracing. This work 
may be jointed by lock or double seam, or sometimes by lap joining 
and rivets. 

The busy season is from April to November, inclusive, but 
the fluctuation of employment is inconsiderable. The trade is 
well organized, there being but three non-union shops in the city. 

Stonecutting. The stonecutter is a worker and finisher of 
granite or other hard stone, and his product is in the form of 
dressed stone, hard or soft, for buildings and for ornamental mon- 
uments. 

The work includes the cutting of letters and designs in stone, 
and it may be noted that the stonecutters of Evansville do also 
a certain amount of marble working. 

The stone block as it comes from the quarries is of irregular 
shape, and the first processes in stonecutting have to do with 
making it straight and true, i. e., with lining it up. The cutter 
lines up the stone by cutting on its face or edge with a machine 
or hand chisel or drill a line which, being straight and true, 
becomes his working mark. The stone is then pointed or roughed 
.off by the use of the peen hammer or a pointing machine tool. 
After being roughed off or pointed as near the line as possible, 
the stone is smoothed up with the hand or machine bush. The 
hand bush is a hammer whose face is composed of 4, 6, 8, 10 or 
12 sharp pyramidal points, or cutters, the number being generally 
specified in the agreement between contractor and builder. The 
stone is first worked down with a coarse bush, and is then finished 
with a fine bush. 

If the stone is to have any inscription or design cut on, this 
work is done after the above processes have been completed, and 
the stone is then ready to erect. The finished stone is set in 



202 Evansville Vocational Survey 

mortar and the joints pointed with a jointer or trowel. In monu- 
ment work the bottom and top base are worked as described above 
and then the shaft. Sometimes a cap is used, which is placed 
between the top base and the shaft. These parts are placed one 
upon the other, the bottom base first, then the top base, then 
the cap, the last to be placed in position being the shaft. The 
several parts are set up without being tied together in any way. 
In a monument of the cross design the lower end of the shaft has 
a shank cut on and the base has a slot cut for the shaft to fit in. 
In some cases a hole is drilled in the base and shank, and a 
galvanized iron pin placed therein to help hold the pieces to- 
gether. 

Very little block cutting is done in the city at the present time, 
although this line of work has in the past given employment to 
a considerable number of men. 

The work of the stonecutter is physically exacting and in 
operating the compressed-air machines the noise is a condition 
tending to cause nerve strain. Inhaling the dust that arises, 
especially from the air machines, is injurious. In the relatively 
unskilled processes, moreover, such as roughing off the stone, 
where the worker is continually on this work, there is little that 
is calculated to appeal to the worker's interest; where, however, 
the work is sufficiently varied and of a high grade, the occupation 
is one which provides some opportunity for the development of 
a high degree of skill. The stonecutter in Evansville does not, 
however, under present conditions, normally develop, in conse- 
quence of his trade experience, into a fine letterer or stone carver. 
The busy season for stonecutters is from March to October, 
inclusive, and the slack season from November to February, inclu- 
sive. 

Structural steel and iron work. All iron and steel work belongs 
to one of two classes, ornamental or structural, and the workers 
are known as ornamental or as structural steel workers. 

Under the head of ornamental work comes the manufacture 
and erection of outside and inside stairs, fire-escapes, grill work, 
elevator inclosures, balcony railings, fences, cellar caps, vault 
lights and all forms of a like character. The layer-out prepares the 
work for the other workers. He selects the iron of the proper size 
and kind, lays out from the drawing the proper lengths of stock, 
marks off all rivet holes, half-lap joints, drill holes and all other 
laying-out necessary for the information of the helpers and mechan- 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 203 

ics. After the stock has been selected, cut and laid off, it goes to the 
helpers or mechanics in the various parts of the shop. All punching 
is done on a punching machine, which punches the various-sized 
holes for riveting, and the operator of this machine is classed as a 
mechanic. Other holes that cannot be punched are drilled on the 
drill press or by portable hand drills, and other work sawed and 
slotted on the backsaw and the slotter. Castings are ground and 
filed by helpers. Curved and bent work is sent to the blacksmith, 
who shapes it up according to forms or templates. After all work 
has been punched, sawed, filed, drilled and forged, it goes to 
the finisher for assembling. When the finisher has properly assem- 
bled the job, he passes it on to a helper, who paints it. It is 
then ready for delivery to the customer or for erection. 

In structural steel work after the draftsman has completed the 
detail drawings they are sent to the foreman of the structural 
department, who assigns the work to the layers-out. The proper 
I-beam or channel iron is selected and cut to lengths and the 
places for the rivet holes are marked off. If any cutting to a 
certain shape is required, this is marked on the steel. The work, 
after it is laid off, is sent to the punchers, cutting-off machines 
or drill presses, where the pieces are cut to size and shape, holes 
punched or drilled, and everything done to put the work in shape 
for the assemblers. When the parts are ready to be assembled, 
they are riveted by means of riveting machines operated by com- 
pressed air. After the ends have been faced off, the work is 
ready to be painted and erected. Men known as steel erectors 
put the base in place and supervise the riveting of them by the 
riveters. In structural work all layers-out, punch hands, assem- 
blers and erectors are classed as journeymen, and all riveters, 
drillers, heaters and helpers are classed as helpers. 

The busy season is usually from April to August, and the dull 
period from November to February. At times it becomes neces- 
sary to lay off most of the men. This makes the fluctuation in 
employment considerable. Often during exceedingly busy peri- 
ods men are brought in from other cities. 

The entrance age of apprentices is generally 18 years and 
over. This is somewhat higher than in other trades, but the work, 
at times, is heavy and a well-developed boy is needed. No organ- 
ized system of apprenticeship exists, but it takes at least four 
years to learn the trade thoroughly, if the time has been served 
under instruction. 



204 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Because of the demand for structural-steel buildings, the de 
mand for workers in this trade will probably increase in the 
future. The journeymen are recruited from the ranks of the help- 
ers in the shops, who may be given the chance to become mechan- 
ics. 

Unskilled labor in the building trades. Under the head of build- 
ing trades laborers, are included hodcarriers, cement laborers, 
carpenters and stonemason's helpers, structural steel laborers and 
all others in the building trades who do the rough, unskilled work. 

The laborer goes from job to job and from one kind of work 
to another. The hodcarrier, however, changes jobs and class of 
work probably less frequently than other laborers in the building 
trades. As long as there is a demand for that class of work 
he generally sticks to it. This may be due to the fact that some 
training is required for his work. He mixes the ingredients for 
the mortar and carries the mortar in a hod to the plasterer or 
bricklayer. 

In general, laborers are used around buildings under con- 
struction to do such heavy work as moving stones and heavy 
timbers and to do odd jobs for the carpenter and the structural- 
steel worker, insofar as unskilled labor can be employed. In 
other words, the laborer around a building does the heavy un- 
skilled work that would otherwise occupy the time and exhaust 
the strength of the mechanic. 

In cement or concrete work the laborers mix the ingredients, 
and haul the mixed cement or concrete to the finishers in wheel- 
barrows. Other helpers assist in pulling the load up inclines, 
while others spread the material, working directly with the fin- 
isher. 

There are other lines of work in the building trades that re- 
quire laborers, but in all cases it is generally unskilled and heavy 
work. There are approximately 1,000 unskilled laborers in the 
building trades of Evansville. 

The busy season for these laborers corresponds in general 
with that in the building trades, extending from March to the 
end of September. The dull season is during the winter months. 
Sawmill hands, however, generally have steady work throughout 
the year, with a reduction in the number of hours per week during 
the slack season. 



III. CIGAR FACTORIES 



1. General Findings 

Importance of the industry. The five cigar factories of Evans- 
ville employ approximately 2,100 workers and the manufacture 
of cigars is, therefore, judged by the number of employees, an 
important industry in this community. As regards the develop- 
ment of specifically vocational education, however, the importance 
of the industry is inconsiderable, owing to the simple character 
of the several employments or occupations differentiated in the 
industry as conducted. 

Product. Large and small cigars, entirely made by hand, are 
the only products of the Evansville factories. 

Characteristics of the industry. Employment in this industry 
is reasonably steady, but the slack season extends approximately 
from the middle of July to the middle or end of October. During 
this season the factories usually run short time, retaining their 
employees so far as possible on their rolls. Some of the workers 
seek employment in other lines of work during this season, but 
the great majority continue in the factories working short time. 

In the primal manufacturing processes of handling and stem- 
ming the tobacco, dust from the dry tobacco and heat and moist- 
ure create conditions of work tending to impair the health of the 
worker. 

Specialization of processes. There are three general types of 
work in the tobacco industry which may be characterized as 
follows: (1) The productive processes, involved directly in the 
manufacture of the product ; (2) the secondary processes, involved 
in the packing and shipping of the product; and (3) the auxiliary 
processes, involved in the manufacture of containers, such as 
boxes and cartons. The extent to which the auxiliary processes 
are carried on in a factory is determined largely by the size of 
the plant and its demand for boxes and cartons. Hence the box- 
making department, for example, is usually found in large facto- 
ries where the output justifies the installation of the necessary 
machinery. An enumeration of the productive and secondary 
processes, each of which represents the simple employment of a 
group of workers, will indicate the degree of specialization estab- 
lished in the industry. 

205 



206 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The productive work begins with the opening of hogsheads 
of tobacco as they come from the warehouses. The tobacco is 
shaken out or "handled," and steamed. The leaves are next 
assorted according to size and quality and then stemmed. Bunch 
making, or "breaking," follows, the filler, long or short, being 
bunched and wrapped in a binder. Lastly these bunches are 
rolled, and the manufacture of the finished cigar is thus com- 
pleted. 

The secondary processes in cigar making embrace packing, 
banding, labeling, stamping and shipping, which are sequent proc- 
esses in the order enumerated. The cigars are packed into vari- 
ous receptacles according to their style, brand and quality. 
Assorting of the cigars and shading on a given color basis form 
the biggest portion of this work. After cigars are packed into 
their boxes or cartons, the brands that are to be banded are taken 
to the banding department. The boxes and cartons are then sent 
to the labeling room, if they are to be labeled, where they have 
decorative labels pasted on them. The pasting of the stamps on 
every box and on every package is the last step in the making 
and packing of cigars. This last process completed, the product 
is then ready to be marketed or stored in the humidor — a large 
storage, room of uniform temperature and humidity. 

In recent years the policy has been adopted in some shops 
of teaching beginners several processes. Except in the factories 
where this policy is in force, workers tend to continue in that 
line of work in which they have acquired by experience some 
degree of facility. 

Labor supply. In Evansville, the cigar industry provides 
employment for large numbers of young girls. Only approxi- 
mately 10 of the 2,100 workers in the cigar factories are male. 
Practically all of the cigar workers are native born, and 
have received their training in Evansville factories. The greater 
number of them have come directly from the Evansville schools 
at an early age into the factories, although a small number have 
come in from other industries. 

Qualifications and training of ivorkers. Operations in the 
tobacco industry vary little in their demands upon general intel- 
ligence and skill, the two processes which must be noted as 
exceptions to the general rule that a minimum of intelligence and 
experience suffices for productive work being rolling and packing. 

The workers in the industry are semi-skilled or unskilled, and 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 207 

the operations which they are required to perform can be learned 
in periods ranging from two days to eight weeks. There is, there- 
fore, no apprenticeship system in this industry. 

Promotion for efficiency. The acquirement of skill in one line 
of work in this industry does not normally lead to promotion to 
any other line. Packing, for example, is largely a matter of color 
sense — which is inherent rather than acquired — and the oppor- 
tunities for promotion to this position are few, and are not 
dependent upon training entirely. Teachers and inspectors are 
naturally selected from experienced workers, but the economic 
advancement of the worker comes with increasing skill in one 
line of work, rather than in any regular advancement to other 
lines which pay higher wages. This is necessarily the case where 
the processes are not progressive, as regards the skill required 
in performing them, but are, on the contrary, independent and 
co-ordinate. Opportunities for advancement are, on the whole, 
inconsiderable. 

Wages. Wages in the principal employments of the tobacco 
industry are generally by the piece, bunch breakers, for example, 
receiving 20 cents for 100; rollers, 35 cents per 100; packers, 40 
cents per 1,000; stemmers, 3% cents per pound. Banders are 
paid $6.00 per week. 

Can the schools co-operate? The cigar industry in Evansville 
does not provide a basis for any strictly vocational training in 
the schools for tobacco workers, and owing to the specialized 
type of factory organizations, and to the division of labor, part- 
time vocational instruction cannot advantageously be undertaken. 
All operations are learned in the factory, and the amount of 
specific trade information or technical training required of the 
worker is meager. 

Workers engaged in the industry, however, need and desire 
additional school training — some along the line of general ele- 
mentary school subjects, others along special lines, such as cook- 
ing, sewing, commercial work or nursing. The forewomen and 
so-called "teachers," whose duty it is to look after the efficiency 
of the departments, need some training in industrial relationships. 

The work in the cigar factory is debilitating because it is 
monotonous, hence if a girl is to keep herself in the best physical 
condition she must have proper physical training and recreation. 
If the schools should provide opportunities for this training and 
recreation in gymnastic classes, they could contribute materially 



208 Evansville Vocational Survey 

to the welfare of these workers. Increase in efficiency, although 
that would certainly result incidentally, obviously should not be 
the prime motive in dealing with these workers. 

2. Occupational Analyses 

Handling and steaming. Dry tobacco leaf tied in bunches by 
the ends of the stems is taken from hogsheads, leaves examined, 
bad ones removed, the bunch untied and leaves shaken out and 
placed in piles ready for stemming. This work is done by colored 
people who have learned to detect bad leaves. 

Steaming is a machine process for dampening. The worker, 
a colored person, feeds the leaves into the drum, a revolving tube- 
like machine through which steam passes and comes in contact 
with the leaves as they are carried along and distributed by the 
drum. When the leaves emerge from the opposite end of the 
drum they are moist, soft and ready for stemming. 

These two processes are performed by day laborers who re- 
quire for the work no special training whatever. It should be 
noted that dust from the dry tobacco and heat and moisture from 
the steam of the drum create unfavorable conditions. Care is 
taken, however, to ventilate the workrooms, so that dust and 
steam are carried off, thus minimizing the discomforts of the 
workers. 

Assorting. Tobacco leaf is assorted while damp, and graded 
for its various uses. This process consists of opening the leaf 
so as to see the size and quality, the large perfect leaves being 
graded for wrappers, the smaller and imperfect leaves being used 
for filler, and bad leaves are discarded. The work is done by 
white girls. It requires practically no skill and only a very lim- 
ited knowledge of the leaf. Sufficient training, for the work can 
be acquired in a few days in the factory, though facility increases 
with experience. 

Stemming by hand. Much of the tobacco, especially the leaf 
that is used for the manufacture of smoking and chewing tobacco, 
is stemmed by hand. This process consists of folding the leaf 
along the midvein, the under side of the leaf outermost, and while 
holding the tip of the folded leaf in one hand, the thumb and fore- 
finger of the other grasp the midvein and with a quick, deft turn 
of the wrist the midvein is torn out. 

Stemming by hand involves more manual skill than does 
.stemming by machine, but like the machine process requires very 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 209 

little training or experience. A fairly high degree of skill may 
be attained in a few weeks. 

Bunching. Bunch breaking is a semi-skilled operation involv- 
ing the exercise of some judgment. The filler buncher breaks the 
filler without a guide, and the amount of filler used for each 
bunch is determined wholly by the feel of it in the hand. Around 
this bunch she wraps a binder to hold the bunch together. The 
scrap filler bunchers gather the scraps together, determine the 
size of the bunch by the feel and wrap in a binder. The bunches 
are then passed on to the rollers for the final binder or outer 
covering. 

Rolling. In this operation, the worker selects the binding leaf, 
trims it to the proper size and shape with a small knife, rolls 
the cigar, sometimes biting and sometimes cutting to the proper 
length; pastes the end of the binder, and clips off the opposite 
tip end of the cigar. 

As the same side of the leaf must always be on the outside 
of the cigar, the worker must be careful to lay the leaf in the 
right position, and since the two halves of the leaf are reversed 
in shape, the rolling is divided into two classes, right and left 
wrapping. 

The same problem is involved in making the bunches, as they 
must be rolled to correspond to the wrapper so as to avoid loosen- 
ing or unrolling the bunch when the wrapper is put on. 

Grading and shading. Finished cigars in lots of one, two or 
more thousand are laid on a table over which a northern light falls. 
The cigars are laid in rows of 500 or 1,000. The worker then 
selects the cigars nearest alike in color and shade and places 
the entire number in rows, first selecting those of like color. This 
is called grading. 

When the entire lot has been graded, each grade is shaded, 
that is, arranged in rows or scales of intensity of color, the darkest 
being at the left and the lightest at the right. This is done by 
laying the cigars side by side and matching them so that to the 
unpracticed eye the cigars seem to be of the same shade and color. 

Packing. For the two types of cigars — cheroots and big cigars — 
different methods are used. Big cigars are for the most part 
packed in wooden boxes, sometimes in tin boxes, and occasionally 
in imitation wood boxes, while little cigars are packed in card- 
board boxes of various kinds. 

14-5543 



210 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Packing big cigars, which in past years ranked below bunch 
making and rolling in skill, has taken first place in the modern 
factory.' The appearance of cigars in the box is an important 
element in selling, and the factors which determine shades and 
grades are entirely beyond the power of machinery. Packing 
of choice cigars is, therefore, an important occupation in the 
industry. 

The shading and packing of little cigars is a minor process 
as compared with the same processes in packing big cigars. The 
cigars are chosen quickly without being laid upon the table for 
inspection, and since they are not exposed to the eye in a layer 
in the cigar box, close shading is not required. Training for this 
work may be given in a few days, and one or two weeks' experi- 
ence is sufficient for a fair degree of accuracy and skill. 

Inspecting. This process, as the name indicates, consists of 
inspecting finished product to see that it is up to the standard. 
Cigars are carefully inspected, counted and credited to the oper- 
ator and to the firm. This work involves a thorough knowledge 
of cigar making and a quick accurate eye, for cigars in bundles 
are not counted unless the bundle looks too small. It also requires 
a little knowledge of simple accounting. As it involves consider- 
able responsibility, it is done by the most experienced and reli- 
able workers. Experience and a working knowledge of the most 
important operations are necessary for this work, and count for 
more than does instruction in qualifying the worker for the job. 
Workers, therefore, grow into this position and the personal quali- 
fications are too important to make training practicable. 

Banding. Cigars are banded after they have been packed and 
pressed. Usually only the highest grades of big cigars are 
banded, though occasionally small cigars are banded also. The 
bands, which are made of decorative paper printed in bright 
colors, are used to designate the brand of the cigar, and to make 
it look more attractive. Cigars are banded by hand. 

Cigars packed in boxes by the worker who graded and shaded 
the rows with great care, are taken out of the box by the bander, 
who must take care to keep the cigars in their respective places 
and respective rows. The bander lays the cigars on a table, wets 
the bands, usually a bunch at a time, wraps them one by one 
around the cigars, and fastens the ends, taking care to place the 
bands exactly at a uniform distance from the head of the cigar. 
When all the cigars have been banded, the bander replaces them 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 211 

in the box in the order in which they were originally, and closes 
and nails the box. 

This work requires considerable manipulative skill of a simple 
sort, and, since the bands are placed on the cigar without a guide 
to insure uniformity, a fairly accurate eye; but the operation is 
very simple and it is quickly learned. 

Labeling. The process of placing pictures or other decorations 
on the outside of the box is called labeling. One, two or even 
three fancy pictures or strips may be placed on a box. The labeler 
wets the gummed labels one by one, or dips them on a pasting 
board, pastes them on the box in proper position and rubs the 
surface until the label is smooth and edges pressed flat to the 
box. She then stacks the labeled boxes in piles ready to be sent 
to the stamping department. This is a very simple process, 
though it requires some skill to handle the labels, and to place 
them accurately on the boxes, since rarely, if ever, are there any 
marks to guide them in the work. 

Stamping. Stamping is the placing of the revenue stamps on 
the box, carton or package in which the cigars are packed. The 
stamp is placed on the outside of the cigar box, or on individual 
packages when cigars are packed in small packages, and is the 
last process in preparing the product for shipping. 

"When cigars are packed in packages, the packer opens the 
carton, removes the packages and affixes a revenue stamp to each 
package so as to seal it. All forms of tobacco are sealed with 
a revenue stamp, designating the kind of tobacco and the rate 
of revenue, to protect the manufacturer and the Government 
against fraud. The stamped packages are replaced in the carton, 
and cartons are piled up ready to be taken to the shipping depart- 
ment. 

All of the pasting processes are extremely simple, and require 
almost no training. The extent to which an accurate eye contrib- 
utes to success is difficult to determine. Few workers, however, 
fail to qualify through inability to place labels or stamps with 
the required accuracy. 



IV. DRESSMAKING 



1. General Findings 

Importance of the trade. Although it is difficult to determine 
the number exactly, it is estimated that there are in Evansville 
approximately 700 dressmakers, apprentice dressmakers, seam- 
stresses and employees in alteration departments. Of these, 130 
are engaged in custom dressmaking, 400 are apprentices or pupils 
in dressmaking schools, 50 are employees in alteration depart- 
ments of women 's ready-to-wear garment stores, and 120 are sew- 
ers, employed in small shops or working by the day in the home. 

Product. The three custom dressmaking establishments produce 
high-grade sewing such as tailored suits, skirts and coats; and 
fancy waists, skirts, coats and dresses. In one establishment a 
millinery department makes hats to order, often to match the 
costume made in the same establishment. Those engaged in sew- 
ing by the day or in the small shops are occupied chiefly with 
plain sewing for women of relatively small incomes and conserv- 
ative tastes. More elaborate work is required of those who work 
in custom shops. 

Alteration has been classified as one branch of dressmaking, 
because (1) the fitting and alteration of the ready-made dress is 
done according to the dressmaker's method, and (2) the alter- 
ation rooms are recruited very largely from dressmaking estab- 
lishments. Alteration work is limited for the most part, to such 
mechanical processes as readjusting belts and hems, and refit- 
ting skirts, sleeves and collars. 

Standardization of product. In dressmaking there is no stand- 
ardization of product, other than such as is involved in conform- 
ing to styles in vogue. The dressmaker's art is, in fact, largely 
occupied with the constant change in styles or standards, which 
involves the use of new materials, as well as the adoption of new 
models and designs. Differentiation of product and conformity 
to changing styles, that is to say, avoidance of standardization, is 
a special merit in the dressmaking trade. 

Organization and equipment of the trade. Dressmakers are 
found in all parts of the city, though the dressmaking establish- 
ments are somewhat centralized in the business section. Several 

213 



214 Evansville Vocational Survey 

of the larger ones, which cater to a rich and fashionable clientele, 
are fonnd in private houses, in which rooms have been furnished 
for display of goods and for fitting. One establishment, attract- 
ively arranged and furnished, occupies an upper floor in a busi- 
ness block. The exclusive dressmaking shop still has for its pa- 
trons the women who are most exacting as regards harmony of 
lines, form and color. 

Dressmaking establishments that are succeeding in the face of 
strong competition are those that are combining with the old 
handicraft methods of dressmaking the methods of the modern 
factory. This is done by the use of up-to-date machines and, to 
some extent, by a corresponding division of work among skilled 
and semi-skilled workers. 

A number of dressmakers use the modern power hemstitching 
machines in their establishments for trimming and finishing pur- 
poses. Braiding machines, embroidery machines and, to some 
extent, cording machines also are found in these establishments. 

The organization of the workrooms in the different types of 
shops varies to some extent. The dressmaker who conducts busi- 
ness on a large scale frequently has a designing department, a 
sewing or making department, and a tailoring department. Al- 
though each of these departments has its w r ork arranged as a unit, 
they must of necessity work in co-operation to considerable extent. 

The organization in the larger custom dressmaking shops va- 
ries with the establishment, though it usually consists of stock- 
room, lining, skirt, waist, sleeve and tailoring departments. 

There are alteration departments in nearly all the stores where 
ready-to-wear garments are sold, and it may be noted that exclu- 
sive custom work has barely held its own in the past ten years, 
while the work of all kinds in alteration departments has greatly 
increased. 

The smaller shops, found scattered throughout the city, are 
conducted by women in their own homes, some of whom do so 
in addition to their household duties. These dressmakers, as a 
rule, sew for women who dress conservatively and spend consid- 
erably less for their clothes than the women who patronize the 
more fashionable shops. During the past few years there has 
been a gradual reduction in the number of small dressmaking 
establishments employing but two to three girls. 

This is due in part to the difficulty in securing and keeping 
good help, to the competition of the larger shop, and to the steady 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 215 

improvement in style, variety and workmanship of ready-to-wear 
garments, which save women time and energy in choosing mate- 
rials, trimmings and styles and in having them fitted. 

Conditions of work. Conditions of work in a majority of the 
dressmaking shops are good. Light and ventilation are available 
though there is a tendency to keep windows closed on account 
of draughts, smoke and dust, and materials blowing about. If 
proper ventilation is maintained, there is no unusual physical 
strain or danger to health. 

The workers remain sitting practically all day, which is fatigu- 
ing to mind and body. If opportunity were given to open the 
windows and move about for a few moments, morning and after- 
noon, there would be a physical and mental reaction which would 
produce clearer thinking and greater speed. 

Constancy of employment. Dressmaking is generally an all- 
year-round industry. Custom shops, however, give employees a 
month or six weeks, during the summer, as a vacation. The busi- 
est seasons are from March to June and from September to 
December. 

During the rush seasons it sometimes becomes necessary to 
employ additional workers, but this is not very satisfactory, as 
it is very difficult to find workers who can fit into the conditions 
of the different workrooms and there is no time to train new 
people. 

The seamstresses, pupil dressmakers and those engaged in 
alteration have steady employment throughout the year, unless 
a vacation is desired. 

Specialization of processes. In all dressmaking shops where 
helpers are employed, the sewing or making department is divided 
into two or three divisions or sections: (1) The waist section; 
(2) the skirt section; and (3) the coat section, when coats are 
included. In each of these sections the work is again divided. 
In the waist section there are lining-makers, drapers, trimmers, 
sleeve-makers and finishers. In the skirt section there are lining- 
makers, drapers and finishers. In the coat section there may be 
a man tailor, and hand-finishers who make buttonholes, put in 
linings and do any fine handwork that may be put on the coat. 
The apprentices in the dressmaking establishments run errands, 
do shopping and work in the shop as helpers when not otherwise 
engaged. The smaller establishment rarely ever has more than 



216 Evansville Vocational Survey 

a single workroom where designing, such as there is, is done on 
the garments as the work progresses. 

Although the work is divided among workers as indicated, 
the degree of specialization resulting is on the whole desirable— 
except in some instances where an employer insists upon keeping 
a worker indefinitely upon one kiud of work — since it gives oppor- 
tunity for the development of many grades of skill and ability. 
If it were not for this method there would be practically no oppor- 
tunity for the draper and designer to develop the skill and talent 
which has brought dressmaking to its present standard of tech- 
nical efficiency and artistic expression. 

Some dressmakers send work out to shops which specialize in 
certain lines, but this is not very generally done. 

Alteration work is not, strictly speaking, a branch of the 
dressmaking trade, but since fitting and draping of the ready- 
made dress is done according to the dressmaker's method, this 
work has been studied with the dressmaking trade. Another 
point which led to this classification is that the workers in the 
alteration rooms are recruited very largely from the dressmaking 
establishments. Alteration work is limited for the most part to 
the more mechanical processes, such as readjusting belts, refit- 
ting and hemming skirts to suit the wearer, and refitting sleeves 
and waists. As this work has less to do with the style of the 
garment than the custom trade, few drapers and designers are 
employed. Finishers for both hand-sewing and machine-sewing 
constitute the greater proportion of workers engaged in alter- 
ation departments. 

Another type of dressmaking is done by seamstresses, avIio 
are employed by the day in the homes of their patrons, and who 
are often assisted by them in remodeling clothing. They some- 
times are regularly engaged for certain weeks of the year to do 
all the dressmaking for the families of moderate incomes and 
conservative tastes. Their work is necessarily miscellaneous in 
character. 

Labor supply. Workers are not selected for the dressmaking 
trade with due consideration of their fitness for the work, or their 
ability to develop the necessary skill and artistic sense. Dress- 
makers choose from the applicants who come to them for work 
at the beginning of each season those who can sew and those who 
have had some experience in dressmaking shops. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 217 

The proprietors of the custom dressmaking establishments say 
that it is very difficult to secure workers who are efficient, and 
that inefficient help is, therefore, necessarily employed and re- 
tained. Pieces are often returned to the workers to do over, 
because of the " slip-shod" sewing and this is a costly procedure 
for the employer as well as for the worker. 

In the department and specialty stores, women employed in 
alteration work have generally been home dressmakers or assist- 
ants in dressmaking establishments, although occasionally a 
woman who has been engaged in factory work is employed. 

To the passing of the small shop is doubtless largely account- 
able the decrease in the supply of workers available for the large 
shops, since girls trained in small shops have in the past fur- 
nished a large percentage of workers to the large shops. 

There are four sewing schools covered by this report, where 
women and girls, including those with and those without experience, 
pay tuition and receive lessons in sewing and drafting. One of 
these schools makes a specialty of tailoring and drafting, while the 
others give drafting with a more general sewing course. Many 
keepers of small shops and day sewers have obtained their first 
training in the dressmaking schools. 

The courses in sewing in. the public schools do not prepare the 
girl for entrance to any well-paid occupation in dressmaking. 
If she enters this trade from school, she is compelled to begin in 
the lowest-paid occupation and work up. 

Qualifications for efficiency. Workers in the dressmaking trade 
may be generally classified into two groups: (1) Those having 
ability for and skill in performing the mechanical processes of 
the work; and (2) those having artistic ability, as in planning 
and arranging trimming and in designing waists, skirts and 
gowns. The worker who excels as a designer of artistic gowns 
may not be a good sewer and not infrequently the worker who 
excels in fine sewing on chiffon, silk or other material has small 
ability as a designer. Ordinarily, however, the designer has a 
working knowledge and skill in the mechanical processes of the 
trade. 

Ability to sew neatly, to handle skilfully silks, chiffons and 
fine linen, cotton and woolen fabrics, is essential. 

Much attention in the past has been given to the kinds of 
stitches, seams, and hems to be used in making a garment. These 
are important, but of still greater importance, in the opinion of 



218 Evansville Vocational Survey 

dressmakers, is the ability to handle fabrics so as to keep the 
grains of cloth running in the right direction and in the right line, 
in making a seam or a hem. This work requires considerable 
knowledge of fabrics and good eyesight, since the grain of the 
cloth is determined by the warp or the woof threads and also a 
fine sense of touch. Any tendency to moist hands, which cannot 
be readily cured, may disqualify a worker, even though she be 
skillful, since the moisture may spoil fabrics that are delicate in 
texture or color. 

Ability to measure accurately is essential, not only by use 
of the tape measure, when absolute measurements are required, 
but also by matching the two sides of the garment, or merely by 
judging length or size by sight. What is called " eye-measure- 
ment " in some of the work is considered very important. Ex- 
pertness comes only through long experience. 

In some lines of work, machines have replaced handwork, re- 
ducing the cost of labor materially. The operation of these ma- 
chines, however, on the different kinds of fabrics used for dresses 
and suits requires a high degree of skill; so that the skill in- 
volved in this work as compared with handwork, is changed in 
kind rather than degree. The machine obviously in no way con- 
trols the combination of colors or the design. Many workers 
in the dressmaking trade do hand sewing exclusively, but the 
greater number of the workers in any dressmaking establishment 
do machine sewing as well as hand sewing, and they are expected 
to know how to handle the various kinds of fabrics in both types 
of sewing. 

The essential educational qualifications are practically the 
same for all occupations in the trade. One should have a knowl- 
edge of the fundamental processes of arithmetic, including com- 
mon and decimal fractions, and simple percentage. Sufficient 
knowledge of English to speak and write clearly : ability to spell 
words in common use, and the names of materials used in the 
trade ; and a knowledge of such simple business forms as bills, 
receipts, checks, money orders, and indorsements. It is true that 
there are many women working in the trade who do not have 
these qualifications, but they do not encourage young people to 
begin their life work without the education they themselves have 
failed to acquire. Dressmakers who have given consideration to 
the question of the amount of education girls entering the dress- 
making trade should have, hold that less than a complete elemen- 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 219 

tary education is not sufficient for workers in the trade, and 
that secondary education is, to some extent, vocationally advan- 
tageous. 

The power to observe and to visualize artistic sense, ability to 
take directions readily and to carry them out accurately, initia- 
tive, alertness, promptness and courtesy are among the personal 
qualities every worker must have if she is to rise above the level 
of the lower occupations in the trade. A knowledge of colors and 
color harmony, and good taste in the arrangement of the colors, 
trimmings and lines of a garment are essential. Creative ability, 
as in the designing of gowns to suit individual tastes, is a quality 
rarely acquired, but one of great value in the trade. 

Shop training. The dressmaking trade can be learned in the 
shop, but many girls cannot afford the time required for shop 
training. Many workers have, in fact, learned the foundations 
of their trade — hand sewing, machine sewing, use of patterns and 
construction of garments — in their own homes and these workers 
are considered very desirable employees from the standpoint of 
ability and interest in learning the trade. They are, in many 
instances, the real students of the trade, and as such frequently 
develop the artistic ability which is in many respects one of the 
largest factors in successful dressmaking, and the high degree of 
skill in workmanship which also is essential. Apprentices who 
act first as errand girls for a season and then as helpers are found 
in the larger establishments. Some workers have had preliminary 
experience in the small shops, but these shops can no longer be 
depended upon as training places for learners. 

The uncertain methods of obtaining desirable positions which 
workers report under present conditions still further verify the 
statement that preparatory experience and instruction in sewing 
and in the making of dresses, waists and skirts has become neces- 
sary for workers who wish to enter the sewing trades. 

It is considered very expensive to train girls as many of them 
leave after a few weeks or months, or if they do remain until 
they have gained enough experience to make them valuable to 
any extent, they seek other workrooms for additional experience 
or increase of wages, and again on the part of the employer, a 
search for workers is necessitated. 

Experienced workers are retained year after year, but dress- 
makers are not making any serious or united effort to train workers 
for their trade. This is probably due in a measure to the pres- 



220 Evansville Vocational Survey 

sure of competition and to the lack of co-operation among dress- 
makers, who as yet have no business organization for dealing with 
the problems of their trade. 

There is generally good opportunity for advancement of the 
woman of artistic talent, experience and ability, who is qualified 
to accept a position as designer or manager. 

Opportunity for advancement. Young girls from school, or 
from different industries, enter the smaller dressmaking establish- 
ments as errand girls or shoppers. Helpers in these establish- 
ments are recruited from this class, or by girls somewhat older 
who have had some experience in sewing. These helpers in turn 
become the dressmakers in the establishments and often eventually 
set up shops of their own after they have mastered the trade. 

In the custom shops, promotion comes not infrequently by 
shifting from one establishment to another. A variety of experi- 
ence, familiarity with new methods, and confidence is gained by 
so doing, and workers are enabled eventually to take positions 
involving responsibility. Helpers on waists, skirts, sleeves, or 
coats may, however, continue on one line of work indefinitely, 
under direction of the makers or drapers. Although occasionally 
talent for draping or fitting is recognized and the worker pushed 
ahead to the more important and desirable w T ork, training for such 
promotion is not to any extent regularly provided for. As errand 
girls, shoppers and stock helpers in the custom shops, girls acquire 
a knowledge of colors, fabrics and styles, and on occasion, work 
as helpers on linings, waists and skirts. They may then be ad- 
vanced to such work as making, draping and finishing. 

Sewing schools. Sewing and tailoring schools conducted by 
practical dressmakers have been popular in Evansville for the 
past few years. 

As Evansville is the largest city in this section and offers the 
only opportunity for this kind of w^ork, a large number of those 
who attend are from small towns in Indiana, Illinois and Ken- 
tucky. Girls and women who wish to learn how to sew take ma- 
terials for the garments which they need and make them under 
direction at the school, paying fifty cents a day for the instruction. 
In some cases they pay for having a draft made to their measure- 
ment. In each school a system of drafting is taught and those 
who wish to learn drafting are given instruction in the subject. 
A certain number of days, about forty, are allowed for the sewing, 
and the time required to learn the drafting system is additional. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 221 

For those who wish advanced work, fancy drafting and dress- 
making or tailoring is taught, an additional tuition being charged 
for this work. Any one of the three subjects, sewing, drafting 
or tailoring, may be taken. 

The equipment is the usual one of the sewing room, consisting 
uf machines, drafting and cutting tables, chairs and cupboards for 
work. 

The daily sessions are about six or seven hours in length, five 
days a week. One school is in session one-half day on Saturday. 
In one school evening sessions, two hours in length, are held three 
evenings a week. A few pupils attend both day and evening 
classes. 

The pupils are from 13 to 65 years of age, the majority being 
between 16 and 35 years old. 

The instruction is given by the dressmaker owners and assis- 
tants. The teaching is very informal and individual, therefore 
the relation between teacher and pupil becomes very close and 
intimate. 

Tuition is usually paid in advance and as consecutive days of 
attendance are not required, no refund is necessary except in 
case of prolonged illness or death. The tuition for courses differs 
some in different establishments, but the following is an average : 

Drafting $15.00 to $20.00 

Drafting and dressmaking 25.00 to 50.00 

Forty days sewing 15.00 

Fancy drafting 5.00 

Ten days sewing , 5.00 

These schools rely upon the personal recommendation of stu- 
dents almost entirely for advertisement. As no systematic records 
have been kept by them, accurate information regarding number 
of pupils and attendance could not be obtained. It is estimated 
that the annual number of students is about 400. 

Those who pursue these courses do so mainly for home use, 
but in some cases dressmakers attend for the purpose of learning 
drafting systems. It was stated that a few of the pupils start 
dressmaking shops of their own, some are engaged in dressmaking 
establishments and a few sew by the day. Information regarding 
these points was, however, meager. 

Wages and hours. Since there is considerable variation in 
wages paid to workers, even in shops of about the same class, it 
is difficult to determine any accurate scale of wages for the in- 



222 Evansville Vocational Survey 

dustry. As far as could be ascertained, the wages are as follows : 
Learners, $1 to $1.50 per week ; helpers, $1 to $4 per week ; lining 
makers, $6 to $9; skirt and waist drapers, $6 to $10; litters, $10 
to $20; stockkeepers, $6 to $9. The scale of wages is determined 
largely by the degree of skill required and the relation of supply 
and demand. Wages are advanced as experience and efficiency 
is acquired, but slowly, the usual advance per season being fifty 
cents. 

Employees in dressmaking establishments work <jn the average 
nine and one-half hours. For employees in the alteration work 
rooms of stores, hours are the same as for other store employees, 
being generally about nine hours. 

Can the schools co-operate f Several dressmakers expressed 
themselves as very much in favor of vocational training in sewing 
and dressmaking and of such instruction in art as might be corre- 
lated with dressmaking. Several dressmakers when asked how 
much education a girl should have in order to make the dress- 
making trade her vocation said, in substance : "As much as they 
can get. The girl who lacks education cannot get ahead." 

The proprietors are of the opinion that courses in sewing would 
make efficient workers for them, but they state that under the 
present conditions they cannot afford to co-operate in the support 
of the part-time school. Following are suggestions for school 
training, formulated in conference with those engaged in the 
trade : 

1. That courses in sewing be given in Grades I to VI, in- 

clusive. 

2. That courses of two periods each day be given in the Junior 

High School for those preparing for home sewing, dress- 
making, or garment making. 

3. That a continuation day school course be given for those 

completing the Junior High School sewing or its equiva- 
lent. 

4. That a sewing course be given in Senior High School, equiva- 

lent to the one year continuation course. 

5. That a two year evening course be given equivalent to the 

one year day continuation course. 

6. That day and evening prevocational courses in millinery 

be given for those who have completed the Junior High 
School sewing or its equivalent. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 223 

2. Occupational Analyses 

Dressmakers. Dressmaking as a trade is represented in the 
person of the dressmaker, who combines the functions of several 
occupations, such as that of the designer, the fitter, the salesper- 
son, the supervisor of workrooms, the manager and the business 
head of the dressmaking establishment. She is the artist and 
must be not only skilled in needlework, but also well informed 
as to the technique of garment making. 

As an artist in her trade, she knows the fashion centers ; styles 
and how to use them to suit different types of persons; fabrics 
and textures of fabrics, and how to use them to obtain artistic 
effects; various types of figures and the lines in garments and 
trimmings that best suit them ; how to study such personal charac- 
teristics as complexion, color of the eyes and the hair, the contour 
of the face and ways for making the dress of the wearer minimize 
or accentuate such characteristics in order to get effective results. 
Her highest art is accomplished when she can make the dress ex- 
press the individuality of the wearer. 

It may be noted that the use of designing and application of 
decorative stitches has given great significance to the value of 
design and color study, as the art basis in dressmaking. Hem- 
stitching, braiding and embroidery have been used increasingly 
in the past few years. These points indicate the necessity of 
knowledge of applied art as adapted to dressmaking. The custom 
dressmaker goes to the fashion centers twice a year for the pur- 
pose of studying the models and must be able to reproduce what 
she sees and possess creative ability in adapting dresses to design, 
in arranging trimmings and combining colors. This applies more 
or less to every worker in the trade who is in any way responsible 
for the appearance of the dress. 

As a dressmaker skilled in the art of sewing and garment con- 
struction, she knows sewing processes, various methods for put- 
ting the garments together, fabrics of all kinds ; the weave, texture, 
grain and widths of fabrics, and ways in which they may 
be used to insure good lines and effects in the finished garment. 

As supervisor of her workrooms, she knows her trade, knows 
how to plan for a number of persons, has sufficient knowledge 
and skill as a worker to direct the work in process of manufac- 
ture, and has the ability to manage people. 

As salesperson; if 'she owns and manages her establishment, 
her art in producing attractive and well-made gowns becomes an 



224 Evansville Vocational Survey 

important factor determining sales. She interests her customer, 
makes suggestions and assists in arriving at decisions in much 
the same manner as the salesperson in a store. 

As the business manager of her establishment, she must know 
markets for fabrics, trimmings, laces and furs; prices and values 
of these materials; exclusive markets and jobbers' markets; the 
available supply of workers for her business ; the range of wages 
to be paid to all workers in her trade ; what prices will be paid 
for the product of her establishment; and business methods of 
accounting, banking and carrying on business, which she may do 
herself or delegate to an assistant. 

Helpers. In dressmaking shops, helpers are the younger work- 
ers who assist in various ways. They sew on hooks and eyes and 
help with other less important sewing. If they can sew neatly, 
they are allowed to assist in other finishing work. They may 
also do fine hemming or run tucks. Such girls have had no 
training in dressmaking as a rule, but they have been taught how 
to sew in the schools or at home. They are the learners in the 
trade, and observant girls in these positions may pick up con- 
siderable knowledge about sewing, garment-making and fabrics. 
Only a few girls are employed for this work, however, dressmak- 
ers reporting that they cannot afford to give time to training 
learners for the more important work of making linings, draping 
and fitting. 

Shoppers. The shopper makes all the incidental purchases 
for the dressmaking establishment. She matches fabrics with 
threads, trimmings, linings, velvets and ribbons. She is frequently 
called upon to buy material that matches a sample. This calls for 
ability to match color, weave and textures of the fabric. She is 
frequently asked to use her judgment in selecting linings or vel- 
vet that nearly match or blend with a sample of cloth. The 
shopper must be able to take directions and carry them out 
accurately. She must learn prices so as to quote them accurately 
and must learn where the articles she is to buy may be found. 
She must also be observant to be able to tell about new articles 
she sees in the stores that may be useful in dressmaking. A 
pleasing but dignified manner, good taste and quiet but neat attrac- 
tive dress are important points to be observed by persons in this 
position. 

Shopping is considered very good training for beginners, since 
this position gives a girl an excellent opportunity to learn costs, 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 225 

amounts of materials needed, and business methods used in the 
trade. The training is especially valuable for young persons look- 
ing forward to doing business on their own account. 

Waist drapers. The waist draper arranges the fabric of the 
waist on the fitted lining. She puts the lining on the dress form 
which has been padded to the size of the customer and arranges 
the cloth on fronts and backs of the waists, according to the design- 
er's directions or the model which may be used. The draper may 
use one material, as in the making of simple gowns, or several 
kinds of material and her work may be complicated. She also 
directs the placing of gathers, tucks or sewing that may be done 
on the waist while the draping is in progress, and directs the sew- 
ing of the seams when the draping has been completed. In many 
dressmaking establishments the draper is also the designer and 
generally draping leads normally to designing for workers develop- 
ing the requisite talent. 

A knowledge of fabrics is essential in this employment, since 
the draper must know how to use the grain of the cloth to get 
the desired result; how to work in the cloth at the seams so as 
to make the garment fit the body; how to allow the necessary full- 
ness ; and how the grain of the cloth should run so as to make ful- 
ness effective ; and also how to keep both sides of the garment alike 
unless a difference is desired. Quite as much skill is required for 
the waist of plain material and simple detail, — which may, and fre- 
quently does, in fact, call for the highest degree of skill to get 
attractive effects in simple outlines — as for the beautiful effects 
in elaborate combinations. Garments are, to a great extent, good 
or bad according to the skill with which the grain of the cloth 
has been used to produce graceful lines. The skillful dressmaker 
considers trimming much less needful to the beauty of the garment 
than the careful use of material in effecting lines in the garment 
itself. 

Good judgment, neatness in handling fabrics, good eyesight, 
an accurate sense of line and proportion, and good taste are essen- 
tial for this work. Practically all workers in the trade who become 
waist drapers and designers of gowns have served. at some time 
as lining makers. Both makers and helpers work under the direc- 
tion of the drapers, who are often responsible for all work on tho 
garment. 

15-5543 



226 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Waist lining makers. Dress linings for the draper and fitter 
are prepared by the waist lining maker, who cuts the waist lining 
to measure, using the three-piece loose-lining or the French-fitted 
lining; bastes the parts of the lining together with seams of equal 
depths, making both sides of the garment alike ; fits it over a dress 
form ; and sews on the hooks and eyes, or as is the case in the larger 
establishments, gives the lining to an assistant who sews on the 
fastenings. She bastes in place the thin interlining of net or 
chiffon which is put under the lace, net, or chiffon waists now in 
vogue; she makes the shapes, bones and sews the hooks and eyes 
on the belt or the fitted girdle. She also makes any alterations 
on the lining that may be necessary after the first fitting and bastes 
the lining to the belt ready for the drapers. A skilful lining 
maker makes linings that are accurate in every detail to the frac- 
tion of an inch, and so fresh and clean in appearance that they 
look as if they had not been handled. The lining maker must 
know how to make linings of silk, batiste, net and chiffon, and 
how to lay the pattern on the cloth so as to have the grain of the 
material run in the way that will make the lining fit the figure 
well. She must know the different methods of boning waists and 
girdles. She must adapt her work to slender and stout figures, 
to long and short waisted and irregular figures. She must know 
that holding and sewing a seam on one side of the garment in one 
way and not reversing the work exactly, will throw the waist out 
of shape, and that hooks and eyes not carefully matched may 
interfere seriously with the appearance of the waist. Thus, 
although this work represents one of the minor occupations, it 
requires considerable knowledge of garment making, ability to sew 
neatly, and accuracy in measurements and in making seams. 

Waist fitters. The waist fitter, who is usually the dressmaker, 
does all the fitting on waist linings and waists of dresses, as well as 
separate waists. She also takes the measurements which she and 
the lining maker use in preparing the lining and making the waist. 
She inspects the garment as it comes from the draper, puts it on 
the customer, and fits it. She must know what alterations may be 
made by lifting or shifting the shoulder-seam; by shifting the 
seam over the bust line ; by raising or lowering the neck line ; by 
adding fullness or taking out fullness; and whal adjustments may 
be made by the method of attaching the waist to the belt. She 
must know how much fullness to allow in the outer part of the 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 227 

garment; when to use straight lines and when to use cross lines; 
and how to work in the cloth in the fitting so as to make the gar- 
ment suit the figure of the wearer. 

As these changes may involve a very slight amount of cloth and 
yet have great effect on the appearance of the garment, the work 
is exacting. It calls for special knowledge of fabrics and for care- 
ful consideration of personal characteristics and variations in 
figures. It requires, also, to some extent, a knowledge of dress 
designing since the fitter carries out the scheme of the dress as 
planned by the designer. 

Accuracy in measurements, good judgment, knowledge of fab- 
rics and good taste are important qualifications for the fitter must 
know the different methods of making waist linings, as well as 
the methods used for constructing the outer part of the garment, 
since she frequently directs the work of both the lining maker and 
the draper. In many of the smaller establishments the fitter and 
draper design the waist and in such cases, they must fulfill every 
requirement for designing. 

Waist making is a trade and many workers remain in the trade 
as waist makers. Others who wish to become dressmakers may learn 
to drape, fit and make skirts as well. 

Sleeve making. The sleeve maker designs and makes the sleeve 
for all waists and gowns. This part of dressmaking is considered 
so important that all the larger establishments employ one or more 
persons to design, trim and make sleeves and employ helpers to 
assist the sleeve maker who designs the sleeve to correspond to the 
style of the dress. She determines the pattern to be used, 
whether, for example, a two-piece sleeve, a bishop-sleeve, or a 
one-piece fitted sleeve, — the combination of materials, the addition 
of tucks, gathers, or crosslines in the sleeve. The way the grain 
of the cloth is used to gain effects from the material without decora- 
tion, the style or form of cuffs, undersleeves or other accessories 
and the combination of pattern, material and grain of cloth. The 
sleeve maker must take account not only of the style of the gar- 
ment for which the sleeve is to be used, but as well of the type 
of figure, since adaptation to type of figure is as important in 
designing a sleeve as it is in designing other parts of the dress 
or waist. 

The sleeve maker should have much the same sort of knowledge 
about fabrics, color, the figure and good style, as the waist draper. 



228 Evansville Vocational Suevey 

She may become a waist maker if she desires, but as a rule, sleeve 
makers were once waist makers who, as such, showed ability in 
designing and making sleeves, and because of that, became spe- 
cialists. 

Skirt lining makers. The drop skirt linings of silk, net and 
chiffon, the materials used at present, are cut and made by the 
skirt lining maker. She cuts the lining to measurements taken by 
the skirt fitter, using as many gores as the style of the garment 
may call for; bastes the parts together, making both sides of the 
garment alike ; makes the placket, adjusts the skirt to measurements 
on the figure and makes the belt. The garment is then ready for 
the first fitting. When the lining has been fitted and the length 
determined, she makes any alterations that may be necessary, sews 
the seams and turns the hem ready for the finishers, who hem the 
bottom and finish the seams. She also presses the lining and 
sews on, or directs the work of sewing on, hooks and eyes, or snap- 
pers. The lining maker is, in a sense, the assistant to the skirt 
maker, whom she may help in making the outer skirt. Hence in this 
work, she may learn to be a skirt draper if she is observant and 
shows talent for the work, and eventually may be promoted to 
the position of draper. 

The person who makes skirt linings must know how to lay the 
pattern on the cloth to have the grain run in the right direction; 
how to use cloth to the best advantage; and how to make allowance 
in length for hems and for fitting and finishing. In making altera- 
tions she must know how to make the two sides of the skirt alike, 
or how to make them appear alike on the figure for which the lining 
is made, if the figure is not altogether symmetrical. She must 
be able to read and follow measurements accurately; must know 
how to handle taffetas, messalines, nets and batistes; and also how- 
to place the seams in the skirt lining so as to make the garment fit 
well and suit the outer part of the dress. 

Skirt making or draping. The work of the skirt maker or draper 
corresponds very nearly to that of the waist draper. She arranges 
the fabric for the skirt on the lining, who puts the cloth on the 
front and backs of the skirt, following the directions of the design. 
Qualifications for these workers are practically the same as those 
specified for waist makers and drapers. 

Alteration. The alteration of ready-to-wear garments is con- 
fined largely to fitting and finishing. The fitter adjusts or fits 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 229 

the garment to suit the wearer and usually does any redraping 
that may be necessary. She determines what alterations are to be 
made; directs such ripping as must be done; directs the basting 
and preparation for the second fitting which is frequently given; 
marks the garment for further alterations, if necessary ; and directs 
the work of finishing the garment. Fitters in these workrooms may 
fit dresses and waists or coats and suits, or both types of garments 
may be fitted by the same person. 

Alteration workrooms are using the dressmakers' methods for 
alterations of ready-to-wear clothing. The fitters', drapers', and 
designers' arts are being us^d to make ready-to-wear garments of 
silk, chiffon, net, broadcloth, and the like, fit well and appear 
artistic, and touches of hand-embroidery and hand-sewing are 
used to give the garments the finish and appearance of custom- 
made garments, 

Finishing. Finishers must be capable of doing both hand and 
machine finishing. Hand finishing includes such work as basting, 
sewing on hooks and eyes or snappers, hand-hemming, tacking, 
and binding. 

Machine finishing includes such machine-sewing as seaming, 
binding and putting in rows of finishing, and stitching, as on 
the edge of coats or the tops of seams. 



V. FLOUR MILLS 



1. General Findings 

Importance of the industry. The five flour mills of Evansville 
employ a total of 144 men. As developed in this community the 
industry is, therefore, at present, not a large employer of labor. 
The industry is largely dependent upon the technical knowledge 
of a comparatively few men of long experience in the industry, 
the occupations of a majority of the workers being of a simple 
character easily learned in the mills. The local development does 
not justify the establishment of technical courses in the local schools. 
Such courses when organized should be on a state-wide basis. From 
the point of view of vocational education in the state, the industry 
is obviously important and a somewhat detailed account of its organ- 
ization and employments is therefore given. 

Product. The Evansville mills are engaged in the manufac- 
ture of winter and spring wheat flour. A few by-products, such as 
bran and middlings are made. 

Standardization of product. It will be readily understood 
that the product of the flour mills must conform strictly to certain 
standards, defined in contracts, and that uniformity of product as 
regards nutrient elements, purity, and fineness is absolutely essen- 
tial. The product is, therefore, essentially simple and completely 
standardized. 

Characteristics of the\ industry. A flour mill plant consists of 
a number of "mills." Each of these mills has an elevator, and 
machine for storing, cleaning, grinding, purifying, and packing 
the wheat stock and the flour. Each of them is usually an inde- 
pendent productive unit. The flour mill is organized by depart- 
ments, of which there are eight, exclusive of the office and clerical 
force. The functions of these several departments are wheat 
storage, wheat cleaning, grinding and bolting, testing, packing, 
loading, power, and maintenance and repair. 

As the names indicate, the wheat storage department receives 
and stores the wheat in the elevator, while the wheat cleaning 
department removes the dirt and chaff, and washes the wheat stock. 
The grinding and bolting room, usually known as the "purifying" 
department, is the department in which the wheat berry is broken 
and the wheat separated from the bran by the oft-repeated process 

231 



232 Evansville Vocational Survey 

of roller-sifting. The testing department conducts such tests as are 
required to insure a standard product. In the packing and loading 
departments, the flour is prepared for shipment and placed on the 
cars. The power department and the maintenance and repair 
department correspond to similar departments in other mill indus- 
tries. 

Flour making, contrary to popular opinion, is not a seasonal 
occupation, but the slack months are May, June and January. The 
custom of the mills is apparently to lay off in the dull period many 
of the unskilled laborers, such as coal passers, firemen, packers 
and loaders, and to retain almost all of the more skilled workers. 

In some degree, night work, to which some objection is raised 
by the workers, is required in this prosperous business. 

There is no particular physical or nervous strain on the workers. 
The machines feed themselves automatically. The worker adjusts 
the machine and controls the flow of the wheat stock. The noise of 
the machinery in some departments, particularly in the grinding, 
is disquieting to the visitor, but the men say that they soon get 
used to it. In the wheat storage and wheat cleaning departments 
there are flying particles of dust and chaff, which make these 
departments places where only those with sound lungs should be 
employed. The healthy worker, however, seems to thrive on his 
job, and generally the men who have been years in the business 
appear to be rugged. 

Specialization of processes. For every mill, or two or three mills, 
there is a head miller and an assistant or second miller. In each 
mill the wheat storage department employs sweepers, loaders, an 
elevator man, a loader foreman, and an elevator foreman, the last 
being responsible for all the work of the department. The wheat- 
cleaning department employs sweepers, oilers, a helper, and a 
smutter, the last having general charge of work in the department. 
The purifying department, which is usually directly under the 
head miller, employs sweepers, oilers, helpers, a grinder and bolter. 
In the testing department, flour testers, chemists, a baker, and head 
chemist test the flour of the mills to keep it up to its advertised 
standard. In the packing department, packers and sewers prepare 
the flour for its shipment by loaders in the loading department. 
For each mill there is an office and sales force. The power of the 
mills is usually supplied by steam and in the power department, 
coal passers, firemen, engineers and electricians are employed. The 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 233 

maintenance and repair work is done by millwrights, helpers, car- 
penters and general laborers, plumbers and steamfitters, and 
machinists. A superintendent is in general charge of the mill, his 
time being largely occupied with planning and with directive work. 
The head miller is immediately subordinate to the superintendent. 

Labor supply. Mills like to produce and do, in some cases, 
produce their own grinders, bolters, and millers, but frequently 
they are obliged to go outside for these men, whom they often 
obtain, in fact, from smaller mills located in other cities. At pres- 
ent, the smaller mills in other cities are, therefore, serving, in a 
sense, as training schools for new workers. These workers have 
had practical experience in certain lines, but do not bring to the 
mills of Evansville an adequate technical or mechanical expertness. 
Competent head millers, grinders and bolters are secured with great 
difficulty. The source of the unskilled and semi-skilled labor sup- 
ply is mainly local. Boys are not employed in this industry. 

Qualifications for efficiency. The requirements imposed upon 
the workers in the mills, with the exception of a comparatively few 
men upon whom large responsibilities rest, are not exacting. Failure 
to meet the requirements is generally confined to those positions 
in which practical experience and scientific technical training of 
a high order are requisite for efficiency. Work in the mills alone 
cannot develop adequately in the men capacity to fill these positions. 
The head miller, who is really superintendent of the mill, and the 
second miller must have a practical general knowledge of milling, 
and capacity for managing and teaching subordinates. 

Practical training in the mills. — All of the productive workers 
in the mill except the grinders and bolters, and the heads of depart- 
ments and their assistants, can be trained to meet the duties of their 
jobs satisfactorily in a very short while. For positions below that 
of grinder and bolter, a few simple instructions when the men 
are employed and while they are becoming experienced in the 
routine of the job seem to meet the needs of the plant as far as 
work in these employments is concerned. The men most lacking 
under this system of training are competent head millers, second 
millers, grinders and bolters, but nearly all the men in these posi- 
tions have had long years of practical experience in milling and 
have acquired a working knowledge of the processes of milling 
as it is now carried on. Almost all of them, however, are lacking 
in any training, either in the theory of milling, or in the technical 



234 Evansville Vocational Survey 

or mechanical knowledge bearing on the work in which they are 
engaged. This obviously cannot be acquired in the mill. The 
selective process by which the head miller emerges, is of course 
limited by the capacity of the workers in the mills, and it is signifi- 
cant that in most cases head millers for Evansville mills an 
imported from smaller mills in other communities. These men 
necessarily lack that intimate knowledge of the workings of the 
plant to which they come. The superintendent of the plant, who is 
over the head millers of the various mills of a large concern, has 
usually had superior technical preparation. He has what the head 
miller commonly lacks, although the head miller has the actual 
experience and feel of the work, which it is impossible to get 
without long years of service in a subordinate position. 

Promotion in the industry. In the order of their wages and 
theoretical line of promotion, the occupations in wheat storage 
department are sweepers, wheat loaders, oilers, elevator man, loader 
foreman and elevator foreman; in the wheat cleaning department, 
— sweepers, oilers, helpers and smutters; and in the grinding and 
bolting department — sweepers, oilers, helpers, grinders, bolters, 
second miller and head miller. 

Few of the sweepers and practically none of the loaders are 
advanced to other lines of work. Russians, Poles and negroes are 
employed for sweeping and loading, the men being generally over 
40 years of age, content to remain in their present positions, and 
not qualified for promotion. Some of the sweepers are aged 
employees who have occupied other positions and are now being 
taken care of in this way. 

There is little incentive for the ordinary worker to change from 
sweeper or loader to oiler. As a promotional step, sometimes the 
usually ambitious oiler in one of the larger mills may be shifted 
to work where positions ahead of him are more desirable. 

The helper in the wheat cleaning department is an assistant 
to the smutter, and may expect promotion to the smutter's job. 
Effort is made to promote helpers as they acquire experience and 
develop efficiency but vacancies seldom occur in the better posi- 
tions and opportunities for advancement are few. Only three pro- 
motions took place in the wheat storage departments, for example, 
during the last year— two loaders having been advanced to posi- 
tions as loader foremen, and one oiler to the position of bolter. 

Grinders and bolters usually receive the same wage. Bolters 
come, perhaps, more frequently from other mills or from positions 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 235 

as helpers or grinders. The second miller must have been a grinder 
or bolter, either in the mill in which he works or in some other. 
Usually the head miller comes from a smaller mill where he has 
worked both as a grinder and as a bolter. 

To get competent men, about 75 per cent of the desirable posi- 
tions are filled from outside the plant. The men brought into these 
positions are generally not fitted for any further advancement. 
The long wait in a dusty trade for the infrequent promotions repels 
men of exceptional capacity, and because of this long wait in front 
of them, before they can attain a position paying a wage larger 
than they could earn, for example, in a machine shop or in the 
carpenters' trade, it is difficult to attract boys to the flour mills. 
Rarely, in fact, does any one with a mechanical training enter the 
productive departments of the mills. 

Hours and wages. The flour mills have a twelve-hour day for 
all of their workers, except the sweepers, loaders and packers, who 
are employed for a ten-hour day. Two shifts are operated in each 
mill of the plant. The first shift works from noon to midnight; 
the second shift from midnight to noon. 

The wages of head millers, grinders and bolters are good, while 
the remaining positions pay a low wage proportionate to the skill 
and responsibility required. The wide gap between the superin- 
tendent's salary of $12,000 a year, and that of his assistant, of 
from $4.50 to $8.00 a day, emphasizes the importance of the super- 
intendent's position. As between the several groups of employees 
classified as sweepers, loaders, oilers, and elevator men, differences 
in wages are inconsiderable. Sweepers are paid $2.20 per day; 
oilers, $2.40 per day; wheat loaders, 24 to 27% cents per hour; 
elevator men, from $2.50 to $3.50 per day; loader foremen, from 
$2.75 to $3.00 per day; grinders, $3.36 per day; millers, $3.36 to 
$4.50 per day. 

Can the schools co-operate? The practical training required on 
the part of the head miller can, for the most part, be acquired 
only in the mill, but millers should have in addition, a technical 
training, which cannot be given in the mill. If the flour milling 
industry in the state is to be developed in the future, the state 
should make provision for giving the necessary technical training 
in some one higher technical school. Special training for milling 
would make such skilled workers as grinders and bolters more 
competent in their present positions, and it would also prepare them 



236 Evansville Vocational Survey 

for promotion. The industry offers a profitable field for advanced 
vocational instruction. 

It would appear, however, that the local schools in Evansville 
can do very little, if anything, in the way of vocational training, 
for workers in the flour mills. The workers should, of course, 
have a fair degree of elementary education, since calculations 
and computations are frequently necessary on the part of those 
employed. However, with the modern flour mill machinery, 
equipped with automatic weighing devices, even this requirement 
is reduced to a minimum. Nearly all of the employees in this 
industry are unskilled laborers and any sort of trade instruction 
for them seems impractical at this time. 

2. Occupational Analyses 

Sweepers. The sweeper uses a broom or brush to clean up the 
scattered wheat and wheat particles in every department of the 
mill. He works 10 hours, and usually receives $2.20 a day. He 
should have good health and strong lungs. 

Oilers. One oiler is employed in each mill and he works in 
all of the departments. The speed at which the machines are 
run creates a demand for frequent oiling and as there are many 
machines to serve, the oiler must move rapidly from bearing to 
bearing and from machine to machine, in order to avoid hot boxes. 
To protect himself and the machinery he needs to be bright and 
sharp, observing and careful. There is no need of any education 
whatever, so far as his work is concerned. He can learn in a week 
the location of all bearings. The skill which he gains entirely 
by experience, enables him to use the least amount of oil that will 
keep the bearings in first-class condition and to do his work with 
the least number of steps and effort. On a 10-hour basis, he 
receives about $2.40 a day. His chances of promotion are slight. 

Elevator men. The elevator man is really an inspector looking 
after the elevator legs and spouts and the machinery at work 
in the elevator, to see that it is doing its work properly. He does 
not do repair work, but if something goes wrong, he calls for a mill- 
wright. His responsibility is that of seeing that the different 
grades of wheat are handled to their proper bins. He is in line 
for promotion if he has the ability to do the work of an elevator 
foreman. He should be able to follow instructions about guiding 
the wheat from the spouts to the right bins, so as not to get the 
different grades of wheat mixed and he must be able to keep simple 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 237 

records regarding the disposition of the wheat. A man with ordi- 
nary intelligence can learn to do this work in a week. The skill 
required is an ability to detect trouble in the machinery, and shunt 
the wheat quickly in the proper direction. 

Elevator foreman. There is one elevator foreman for each ele- 
vator. He takes samples of the wheat from the incoming cars, 
inspects each sample and sifts it out to see if the dockage, i. e., 
deduction from total weight for chaff and dirt, corresponds to 
the dockage allowed by the state inspector. He reports the results, 
and stops unsatisfactory cars until proper adjustment is made. 
He gives the order for grading the wheat and for its storage in 
different bins, according to its quality; he has general supervision 
over the elevator and keeps records of the receipts, tests, and dis- 
position of each lot received. In this, the most important position 
in the department, executive ability is necessary. A knowledge of 
weights and measures, ability to figure percentages and to keep 
general records are, also, indispensable. More important still, he 
must know by sight and feel the different grades and qualities of 
wheat. His special skill is exercised in grading the wheat and 
this can be gained only by experience in the elevator, usually as 
an elevator man. 

Wheat loaders. About 20 men are employed as loaders. 
The wheat loader drags a heavy wooden scoop to the far end of 
a loaded car, and sinks it into the wheat. Automatic cables 
attached to the scoop tighten and draw it toward the door of the 
car, the loader following it and returning it empty for another load. 
The loader should be heavy and strong, so as to handle the scoop 
while wading through the grain. A new hand can be " broken in" 
to the work in a day. No knowledge of any mechanism is required. 
In three or four weeks one becomes quite an expert in handling 
the scoop and the more expert a loader becomes, the easier is the 
work for him. He works 10 hours a day and receives from 24 
to 27% cents per hour. There is small chance of any advance- 
ment, save for a few men who show exceptional qualities. While 
the men may meet well, from day to day, the limited and purely 
physical demands of their job, only rarely does a man show the 
ability to become a loader foreman or an elevator man. 

Loader foremen. There is one loader foreman at each elevator, 
who has charge of the unloading of wheat from the cars. He 
directs the movement of the cars as they are brought up for unload- 



238 Evansville Vocational Survey 

ing. The day's work in the movement of the cars must be planned 
and a gang of men directed in the work of unloading and cleaning 
them. The foreman, takes the car numbers and makes a report 
on them. Usually he has come from the ranks of the loaders 
and has reached the highest position for which his work qualifies 
him. Physically and mentally he should be a capable man, since 
he directs the work of from six to ten men, and must plan out and 
direct the day's work for them. He must be able to keep records 
and to make the reports. He need not have any technical or 
mechanical knowledge, since he is in no way responsible for grading 
the wheat or for the operation of the machinery. His special skill 
lies entirely in efficient management of the men and his is dependent 
upon natural qualities and upon experience as a loader and foreman. 
He receives from $2.75 to $3 for ten hours' work. 

Smutters. The smutter cleans the wheat by running it over 
separators. The wheat passes automatically through a series of 
screens in machines of different construction to remove the dif- 
ferent kinds of foreign matter. The smutter inspects the stock 
from time to time at the different machines to see that they are 
doing their work. He makes various adjustments but for serious 
mechanical trouble the millwright is called. In some mills the 
smutter, who is under the second miller, also has charge of the 
sweepers, oilers and helpers on his floor, but does not hire them 
or discharge them. He should have sound lungs, since in his room 
the air is permeated with dust. An ordinary man "who is pretty 
bright" can do the work. A mechanical sense, at least of an ele- 
mentary kind, is necessary; also judgment to tell whether the 
machine for removing a particular foreign element in the wheat, 
such as corn or wheat chaff, is taking out too little or too much. 
He has no instructions to read and no writing or figuring to do. 
All he needs to know about the machinery, he learns while working 
with it. It takes about two weeks to learn how to judge the screen- 
ings and make adjustments. He is practically never shifted to 
the grinding or bolting work. 

Grinders. The grinder has charge of the five sets of rolls by 
which the berry of the wheat is first broken and then refined. The 
most important of these processes is what is known as the "first 
break," by which the berry is so crushed as to admit of the proper 
separation of the different sizes of wheat particles in the sifting 
and bolting room above. The grinder sets the break rolls by turn- 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 239 

ing handles or wheels so as to keep them the same distance apart 
at each end, and prevent the breaks being too high or too low. 
If he gets the rolls too close, the wheat is ruined and if he gets 
them too far apart, the grind is too coarse and the material has to 
be reworked. After the broken material has been bolted or sifted 
so as to separate the different sizes of wheat particles, the coarser 
material is returned four times from the bolting room to the grind- 
ing room, until the grain is reduced to commercial flour. Each 
time the partially^ ground material is refined by being passed 
between rolls set still closer together, and is then returned for 
further sifting to separate the flour. The grinder must see that 
the "head of the wheat" in his mill is so regulated as to give. 
an even flow through the machine. He must be able to take the 
stock from his rolls, particularly that from the first break, and by 
inspecting it with eye and hand, tell whether the breaking is being 
properly done; if not, he must quickly make adjustments of his 
rolls to correct the trouble. 

The grinder must be alert and quick to see and act. Anything 
which goes wrong must be quickly detected and remedied, since the 
mill, running at tremendous speed, is constantly turning out large 
quantities of valuable material. The purity of the brand and the 
cost of the material requires careful oversight, accurate testing, 
and prompt action. No figuring or reading or writing is involved, 
since the second miller keeps the records of the yields of the mill. 
The training of most grinders has been acquired only through 
the routine work in the mill. Few of them have had any technical 
instruction in the theory of milling, or bearing on the construction 
and operation of their machines. They learn by their experience 
all that the present standards of efficiency require. Paid on an 
hourly basis, grinders make about $3.36 for ten hours' work. 

Bolters. A bolter has charge of the bolting or sifting machines 
in the room above the grinding room. These machines contain 
gyrating or revolving cylinders covered with silk cloth having differ- 
ent size meshes. These cylinders contain the wheat stock which, after 
each excursion to the grinding room, is returned for bolting or sift- 
ing through a silk cloth which separates the flour. The bolter must 
test the broken wheat stock, see that it comes from the grinder in 
proper condition, and notify the grinder when it does not. Some- 
times the bolting machines are taking too much stock in at one 
time to do their work properly. This must be corrected by adjust- 



240 Evansville Vocational Survey 

ing the slides which admit the wheat to the silk-covered cylinders. 

In small mills one man acts as bolter and grinder and usually 
a man who can do either line of work can do both lines. By some, 
the grinding is considered the most important work, by others the 
bolting. Generally what has been said concerning the grinder is 
equally applicable to the bolter. The positions held by the grind- 
ers and bolters are the most important productive positions in the 
mills. 

Second millers. There are approximately seven second millers 
in Evansville. They oversee all the men in the mill engaged in 
wheat cleaning, grinding or bolting. 

The second miller must have ability to plan out work, manage 
men, and teach other men to do any of the work of the mill. He 
must have a fairly good common school education at the very least. 
In the smaller mills a record of the day's run must be kept by 
him and in all mills, one of his tasks is to figure up the yield of 
barrels of flour in terms of the amount of wheat used. 

The second miller should be the best practical man in the plant 
outside of the head miller. To a thorough knowledge of all the 
processes of the mill, he must add skill in giving instructions about 
them to other people. 

All that was said about the value, particularly from the stand- 
point of improving their promotional capacity, of the grinder and 
bolter, applies with added force to the second miller, who ought 
to be prepared, so far as his ability will permit, at least for 
advancement to the position of miller, either in the same plant 
in which he works, or in another. 

Second millers work 10 hours daily and receive from $3.36 to 
$4.50 per day. 

Head millers. This is the prize position in every mill for which 
ambitious men aspire, and for which competent men should be 
trained. It is commonly said in the flour business that ' ' head mill- 
ers are born and not made." They are undoubtedly picked men 
having exceptional native qualities of leadership and general execu- 
tive ability combined with the knowledge which they have gained 
by "rule of thumb," through long years of service in the mill. 
Probably no other business in the country is confronted with such 
a lack of capable men for promotion to this position when vacan- 
cies occur. 

Testers (bakers, Hour testers, and chemists). In the testing 
department, the flour from each day's run in the mill is tested 



SUMMAKY OF FINDINGS AS TO INDUSTKIES 241 

and special problems having to do with improvement in the quality 
of the product are investigated. In addition, the miller makes 
about every hour a test known as the "pelcar test," by which 
he can tell at all times whether or not the mills are running up 
to the standard set by the testing department of the company for 
each particular grade of flour. There are three distinct occupations 
in the testing department, namely that of the baker, the flour 
tester and the chemist. The work done by these several testers 
is of such a special character that there is no interchange of work- 
ers. Only one baker is needed to produce the limited number 
of loaves of bread baked from the day's run of flour to test the 
miller's work. 

Some of the beginners in flour testing come from the packing 
department of the mill, and others from the outside. No special 
training is given save instructions from time to time about ways of 
doing work. There does not seem to be any considerable advantage 
in promoting from the mill to the testing room, except that some 
knowledge of flour can be acquired in the mill. Superior ability 
in the flour tester is quickly recognized by promotion to positions 
in other parts of the business. As a group, however, flour testers 
lack the elementary education required and "fall down" in the use 
of arithmetic, the computation of weights, the making of compari- 
sons and the keeping of records. An elementary technical knowl- 
edge of the work of the testing department would be of advantage 
to them, especially when they go out to other departments of the 
plant, or become salesmen on the road. 

Each day the run of flour is tested for ash and protein and 
research work is constantly in progress in the mill. The chemist 
should have initiative and resourcefulness as an independent inves- 
tigator of new problems. He must have at least an A. B. or a 
B. S. degree, the latter being preferred, and his knowledge of chem- 
istry should be that of the student who has pursued it as a major 
subject in college. While there are some routine tasks, the chem- 
ist must be competent to deal with new problems and to devise 
new tests. Adequate technical knowledge of flour milling is, of 
course, essential. 

Milhvrights. The millwright is essentially a general mechanic 
and his occupation is not distinctively a flour mill employment, 
except in so far as the character of his work is determined by the 
equipment of the mill. He sets up and repairs all shafting and 
machinery of every kind, and must, therefore, know how to work 

16—5543 



242 Evansville Vocational Survey 

in both wood and iron. With exception of the miller, the mill- 
wright should be the keenest man in the mill. He must know 
how to make rapidly emergency repairs, how to plan his work 
quickly and how to direct the work of his subordinates. Usually 
he is a man without a complete common school education, who 
has little or no training in such subjects as freehand sketching, 
mechanical drawing and mechanics. In three out of four cases, 
he has grown up in the mill and has learned his trade by experi- 
ence. His special skill lies in his ability to erect spouting at cor- 
rect angles, to insure the proper run of wheat stock. This requires 
an application of elementary principles of geometry which he uses 
in practice, but of which he is probably ignorant in theory. All 
he needs to know, to meet the present demands of the mill at least, 
he learns in the routine of his work. He works eight hours a day 
and earns 35 to 40 cents per hour. Superior ability and efficiency 
is recognized by increase in wages. 

Other workers in the maintenance and repair department 
include millwright helpers, carpenters, plasterers, machinists, 
plumbers and steamfitters and general laborers. These worker? 
under general direction of the millwright, do the construction 
and repair wflrk of the mill. A considerable number of carpenters, 
become millwrights. Most of the carpenters are "picked up" 
from men in the trade outside. The millwright's helper is in some 
plants a common laborer able merely to follow, as one of a gang, 
the direction of the millwright; in other plants, however, he is 
considered an apprentice learning the trade of millwright. He 
works for about 25 cents an hour, for a ten-hour day. 

Power department employees.— The power department employ- 
ees include the coal passers, firemen, engineers and electricians. 
Usually the fireman succeeds to the engineer's job, in case of a 
vacancy. As carried on in the flour mill, these employments have 
no peculiar characteristics, requiring special treatment. 



IV. GARMENT MAKING 



1. General Findings 

Importance of the industry. There are six garment making 
establishments in Evansville employing approximately 376 workers, 
of whom 366 are women and girls. As a machine industry, there- 
fore, garment making is a large employer of women and girls. 
Its importance from the point of view of vocational education 
in the public schools arises in part from the fact that, although 
the conditions of employment are very different from those obtain- 
ing in the dressmaking trades, in general, the elementary courses 
of instruction in the schools organized for the dressmaking trade 
will train workers also for employment in the garment making 
establishments. 

Product. Five of these establishments produce nothing but 
men's ready-to-wear work garments, including shirts, overalls, 
pants and jackets. One factory, included in this group because 
the work processes are similar to those involved in the manufac- 
ture of work garments, produces tents and awnings. The grade 
of work clothes manufactured is considered somewhat below the 
medium grade of garments of this character. Several different 
st3des of overalls and work coats are, however, made, varying as 
to quality of cloth and making and costing from $4.75 to $18 a 
dozen. In one establishment twelve grades of overalls are made, 
involving thirty operations. The better grades contain a rubber- 
lined match 'pocket fastened to a tab by means of eyelets and 
fasteners. 

Standardization of product. Except tents and awnings, the 
product of these establishments is made in large quantities, in 
advance of orders to stock size. The products of the industry 
are, in fact, more or less standardized for the entire country. Over- 
all making, is, however, less specialized, than are other branches 
of the garment industry. 

Characterization of the industry. This industry in a majority 
of cities is highly seasonal, but in Evansville, in marked contrast 
to other communities, it gives a majority of the employees all- 
year-round employment. Some of the workers take a vacation 
of a week during the summer, but work is reasonably steady 
for those who want it. The awning factory is, however, exceptional, 

243 



244 Evansville Vocational Survey 

in that it reduces its working force from about 75 to 10 or 12 
workers during the long period from August until March. 

The industry is in general a machine industry, and power 
machine operating constitutes the work of a majority of the 
employees. The machines used include one, two, three and four 
needle machines, machines for making buttonholes, and for sewing 
and clamping on buttons and snappers, two needle cylinder fell- 
ing machines and other machines for special purposes. All of 
these machines impose certain conditions of work upon operators, 
who must sit with a slight but constant bending forward, must 
constantly concentrate their attention on the work, and must be 
quick and deft in handling and changing the work. The single 
needle machines have a knee press, and all double needle machines 
a foot press, for raising the machine foot from the material. The 
single needle lock stitch machines, used in the manufacture of 
overalls, are commonly of a heavier type than those used for lighter 
fabrics. The machines are all operated by electric power. 

Conditions of employment. Four of the six factories are 
located in new buildings with modern conveniences, and a fifth, 
which has greatly outgrown its quarters, is soon to occupy a new 
building. During the past ten years the character of the buildings 
occupied and of the equipment has been markedly improved. All 
six establishments are at present equipped with fire escapes. There 
is a rest room, a cloak room, and a bathroom on the first floor 
of the new buildings. The rest room is used at noon by a majority 
of the girls, and the bathroom is used most on Saturday. More 
of the girls would use the bathroom on other days were it not for 
the fact that the time required prevents their reaching home until 
late in the evening. 

One manager furnishes the girls with a space in one corner 
of the workroom for social purposes, and at noon or during slack 
periods the girls play and sing, or dance here. 

Work rooms are generally well lighted. In one establishment, 
a skylight is used. Although none of the factories have forced 
ventilation, generally it is true that ample window space fur- 
nishes fairly good ventilation. In many rooms, however, the air 
is filled with lint and dust, which in time affects the lungs. 

The privilege of moving about to get material and to replace 
finished work, relieves but cannot overcome the nervous strain 
caused by the noisy machinery pulsating throughout the factory, 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 245 

which at times causes the floor to vibrate. Hurrying to increase 
the day's output, or to keep material ready for the next group 
of workers also induces nerve tension. Employees stated that for 
fully two weeks after beginning work, they were subject to sick 
headaches each day. There is a constant nerve and eye strain 
in many of the operations, because the materials, being generally 
heavy and stiff, are difficult to manipulate under the needle, and 
because the sight must be directed to a point on the work exactly 
under the pressure foot. 

While some of the machines have no protection from the 
needles, few accidents occur. 

In the occupations requiring constant standing and bending 
over— such as pressing, folding, and scalloping — there is a con- 
stant strain on the back and abdominal muscles. The hands of the 
scalloper in the awning factory become sore and then calloused 
by the use of the shears. Fingers, hands and wrists become 
strained in the effort to keep heavy canvas on the tables and 
machines. 

Specialization of processes. The degree of specialization varies 
from establishment to establishment. The operator may perform 
only one operation ; she may, on the other hand, change frequently 
from one operation to another, or perform a group of operations. 
In most cases, however, the operations are specialized, and the 
sewing is divided into as many separate processes as the number of 
workers and the complication of the garment will permit. In 
the largest of the establishments, in which only two different 
garments are made, 42 operations are differentiated. 

After the beginner has mastered the operation of one machine, 
she can usually take up work on another with but very little addi- 
tional instruction. As a rule, the girls do not, however, change 
frequently from one machine to another, preferring rather to 
become more proficient in some one operation, since they are 
paid by the piece. In some establishments, however, a girl may 
work, as occasion requires, upon overalls, shirts, or jackets. 

One establishment requires a girl (1) to know how to perform 
all of the nine operations defined in overall making; (2) to learn 
the sequence of these operations that will eliminate extra motions 
and handling of garments; (3) to devote more time to learning 
than is generally required; and (4) to increase speed to the highest 
rate gradually. 



246 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The principal processes are laying-out, making, cutting, ticket- 
ing, felling, serging, hemming, staying, facing, buttonholing, pleat- 
ing, yoking, pressing, examining and folding. Practically all of 
the cutting and sewing is machine work. One, two, three and 
four needle power-driven machines are used. Similar processes 
and machines are used in all branches of the garment industry, 
but the specialization of processes is only partially indicated in 
the above list of general processes. Hemming bottoms on the 
legs of overalls, for example, is quite a different process from 
hemming bibs or shirts. Out and in-seaming on trousers are quite 
different processes from yoking or setting in sleeves. A special 
belt machine used on overalls feeds in the belt strip 50 yards 
to the piece, turns in three or four edges, and runs four rows 
of stitching, in joining belt, overalls, and bib together. Single 
needle sewing covers such distinct employments as making inside 
pockets, setting in pockets, sewing on bibs, hemming bibs and 
shirts, putting on flies, joining fronts, yoke setting, putting on col- 
lar bands, putting on side facings, sewing on cloth labels. Button 
piece facing on sleeves, which is done on a special machine, con- 
stitutes a distinct employment. Other distinct employments are 
making neck bands, cuffs, collars, sleeves, and bosom fronts for 
shirts, and making belt straps, loops, tunnels, and shoulder straps 
for trousers. Some of the work, such as yoke, collar, neck band, 
and sleeve setting, although it is all machine work, is only partially 
mechanical. 

All of the work is done so far as is possible, before the seams 
of the garment are joined, so that the material may lie flat on 
the machine. In accordance with this rule, in shirt making, for 
example, fronts are made, pockets stitched in place, and yokes 
sewed to backs, before the shoulder seam is sewed, and sleeves are 
set in before the side seams are run. Neck bands, sleeves, cuffs, 
collars and bodies are made simultaneously by different groups 
of workers and the parts, when finished, are assembled and sot in. 

Labor supply. The workers engaged in power machine operat- 
ing in this industry come mostly from German and American 
families resident in the city and in its outlying districts, the 
home being freqently in the immediate vicinity of the factory. 
Many of the workers have left school at an early age, on or before 
completing the fifth grade. Of the 360 women and girls employed, 
85, or 23.2 per cent were individually scheduled. Of these, ten were 
under 16 years of age, the average of all those scheduled being 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 247 

24 years. The ages ranged from 14 to 60 years. One forewoman 
expressed a preference for girls from 16 to 22 years. All workers 
engaged in sewing must be 16 years old. Girls of 14 and 15 years 
are employed on such occupations as folding. 

One of the largest factories is doubling its plant and the demand 
for workers in the industry generally is increasing. 

Qualifications for efficiency. Employees must be capable of 
understanding and following instructions written on the routing 
ticket, and directions given orally by the forewoman. In certain 
positions, such as that of the examiner, a general knowledge of 
all the processes is required. Good eyesight, strong nerves, deft- 
ness and endurance in machine operation are essential. Little 
opportunity is given for the exercise of originality, since the gar- 
ments are standardized as regards patterns and materials. 

Shop training. A majority of the girls who apply for work 
are unskilled in power machine operating, and must, therefore, 
be given instructions by the forewoman. The learning period is 
usually about two weeks, sometimes as long as three, and if the 
girls learn all operations, longer. One manager estimated that 
it costs about $7 a week to train a new girl. 

Wages and hours. Garments vary somewhat from factory to 
factory, but the operations and piece rates for them are standard- 
ized. The scale of wages has been worked out, and agreed upon 
by manufacturers, and each year, pamphlets on organized labor 
are published for use throughout the United States. In this way 
the workers may keep themselves informed about standard piece 
rates for all operations and check up their earnings. The machine 
operation is usually all piecework. 

Operations are paid for according to the time and skill required, 
a majority of the girls receiving from $5 to $6 a week. The 
minimum wage in the beginning on machine operating is $3 a 
week, but if the worker earns more than that amount at piece- 
work rates, she receives it. A wage of $3.00 is guaranteed the 
earner for three or four weeks, or until she can earn more than 
$3.00 when she passes into the Union. The first and second body 
part workers often earn from $7.00 to $7.50 a week. Finishers, 
who are the best employees, in one establishment receive the high- 
est wages, earning from $10 to $11 per week. The single needle 
workers earn from $8.00 to $9.00 per week. A girl who does 
folding in one establishment is paid $2.50 a week; the folder (a 
14-year-old girl) in another establishment receives one cent a 



248 Evansville Vocational Sukvey 

dozen for iolding shirts, and when she has folded 50 dozen, her 
da\ 's work is done. The shirt presser in one establishment receives 
two cents a dozen, which amounts to about $5.00 or $6.00 a week. 

The salaries of women are about half the amount paid to men 
workers. As in the case of foremen, their salaries are determined 
by the amount of work to be done, the number of workers to be 
managed, and the number of women available for such work. 
Women serving in the capacity of forewomen who were inter- 
viewed for the Survey, reported salaries ranging from $12.00 to 
$18.00 per week. A few receive a higher salary. 

In the awning factory, one dollar per day is guaranteed until 
more is earned by the employee. Four or five who have been in 
the industry only three weeks were receiving $7.00 per week. 

The establishments are in operation from 49 ^ hours to 57 V2 
hours per week, usually nine hours per day, and a short Saturday. 
Hours of work vary from establishment to establishment and are 
longer in the rush season than at other times. 

Can the schools co-operate f Those engaged in the garment 
trades expressed the opinion that there was need for school train- 
ing in the process of garment making, — this training to be given 
to the girls before they enter the industry. Such training would, 
they believed, increase the efficiency and adaptability of employees. 

Those who enter the garment industry would greatly profit by 
a course directed toward developing skill and forming correct 
habits in the simple fundamentals of hand and machine sewing. 
The fundamental elements or common processes are the same in all 
of the sewing grades. They depend largely on skill acquired, 
through carefully cultivated habits, with reference to such simple 
operations as holding the needle properly, using the thimble effec- 
tively, gauging the length of thread, holding correctly materials 
cut on the different ways of the goods, threading the machine. 
and manipulation of the materials under the needle. The training 
obtained in these simple operations would have value for any girl 
who subsequently undertakes machine sewing as a regular employ- 
ment. 

2. Occupational Analyses 

Laying of! and cutting. This is the first general operation and 
is performed by men. The cutter often makes his own patterns. 
He is allowed a given yardage of cloth for a certain number of 
garments. He lays the pattern on the marker, which is a piece 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 249 

of material like the order, fitting each piece of the different sizes 
on so as to avoid unnecessary waste. He then traces around each 
part of the pattern with tailor's chalk. Accuracy and skill are 
required to effect every possible economy of material. 

The material is then spread out in lengths on a long table, 
layer upon layer spread smoothly and with edges even, until a 
sufficient number of spreads are piled to cut the required number 
of garments. The marker is placed on top and the pile clamped 
at each end to hold it firmly. The electric knife used in cutting 
makes about 2,000 revolutions a minute and in the hands of a 
skillful cutter follows each line accurately, cutting from 40 to 
90 dozen pieces at one time. After cutting, the different parts 
are assorted and tied in bundles. 

Preparing routing tickets. The second general operation is 
that of preparing the routing tickets, one of which is placed in 
each bundle of pieces cut, such as flies, backs and bands, as it 
starts on its journey through the factory. This work is done by 
the ticket girl, who works by the piece under a weekly guaranty 
of $2.50. 

The routing ticket consists of a sufficient number of coupons 
to cover each process on a garment. The girl stamps the top of 
the ticket and each coupon with the lot, size and bundle number. 
As each operator receives a bundle, she puts her number in the 
space at the top of the ticket corresponding to her process, and 
clips off her coupon to use as a voucher at the end of the week 
for the work she has done. The numbers on the top of the ticket 
serve as tracers for poor work, when the examiner receives the 
garment. If the garment does not require all of the operations 
designated by the coupons, certain coupons are marked void to 
prevent errors. 

Good health is necessary for the ticket girl because she stands 
on her feet a great deal. She must be accurate and quick, since 
all materials go through her hands, and the employees in the 
following jobs are dependent upon her for work. 

Seaming and joining. Seams are made almost exclusively on 
the two-needle machine which makes a flat fell — side seams on 
the two-needle flat-bed machine, and sleeves on the two-needle 
cylinder machine, over which the operator pushes the garment, 
while the seam, or fell, is being made. These operations differ 
from the same operations in other lines of garment work only 
as regards weight of material used, which in the overall factories 



250 Evansville Vocational Survey 

is a coarse, heavy fabric. The character of the fabrics is, how- 
ever, an important fact, and it should not be assumed that a girl 
who is successful in felling light fabrics will succeed with heavy 
fabrics, or that the reverse is true. Texture and weight of cloth 
are important factors in all branches of the garment work. 

The standing fell, made through a hemmer attachment or a 
hemmer presser foot, is used for seams to some extent. The 
standing fell is made by placing the two edges- together as for 
a plain seam, and inserting them in the hemmer, which turns the 
edges and regulates the depth of the fell. This work like two- 
needle felling requires considerable manipulative skill and judgment, 
for, although the depth of the seam and turn-in are deter- 
mined by the hemmer, the worker determines by the way she 
handles the material the quality of the fell. Too much fabric 
clogs and makes an imperfect fell, while too little fed into the 
hemmer causes the edges to fray out. 

For convenience and speed in producing factory-made gar- 
ments, as many operations as possible are, as has been noted, 
completed while the garment, or part of it, may be laid flat on 
the machine for stitching. In shirt-making, the yoke and front 
facing are put on, shoulder seam sewed and the sleeves set in 
before the underarm seam is sewed or joined. Joining on shirts 
is done on a two-needle cylinder-bed sewing machine, which 
closes the body and the sleeve in a single flat-fell seam. For 
this work the operator lays the two edges to be joined over each 
other, lapping them about a half inch, inserts the two edges into 
the double feller attached to the presser foot through which the 
seam passes to have the edges turned in, guides the work so as 
to keep the turn-in even, and slips the body and sleeve over the 
cylinder extending out in front of the presser foot as the seam 
is sewed. The operation is simple or difficult, according to the kind 
of cloth used, firm cotton cloth which is used for the work shirts 
being rather easy to handle. The garment is only slightly shaped, 
so the sewing of this seam has less effect on the shape of the 
garment than the same seam in shirtwaists, coats and dresses. 

Merging. In serging, the edge of the goods is trimmed and 
simultaneously covered with a loose overcasting stitching. A 
gauge on the machine guides the eloth and regulates the depth 
of the serging stitch. This work is done on the raw edges of 
trousers and pockets to give finish to the seams and to prevent 
fraying. The process is mechanical and may be learned in a very 



Summary of^Findings as to Industries 251 

short time at the machine. The amount of skill required varies 
with the cloth, cloth that tends to fray being difficult to handle. 

T aching. Tacking by machine is a process somewhat similar 
to buttonholing and is used to stay parts where there may be 
exceptional strain. The worker places the garment under the 
presser foot and starts the machine with a lever. The machine 
makes several long stitches to form a bar, reverses action and 
makes smaller stitches covering the bar. The length of the bar, 
and the number of stitches, are determined automatically by the 
machine, which stops when the operation is completed. Tacking 
is used for fastening the ends of pockets and belt straps, the 
upper end of side seams and for staying any other parts that 
need reinforcement. The operator must know how to lay the 
work so that the bar will fall in the right position, and how to 
release the work when the operation is completed. Otherwise 
the process is mechanical. 

Buttonholing. A buttonhole machine was introduced in 1880, 
and came rapidly into use in all shirt factories, very materially 
reducing the cost of production. At the present time, buttonholes 
are all machine-made. Buttonhole-making by hand is a tedious 
process, with a maximum capacity for a skilled worker of seven 
or eight dozen buttonholes in a nine-hour day. The machine 
process, with a fairly skilled operator, yields from 5,000 to 6,000 
buttonholes per day. 

Essentially the same types of machine are used for all gar- 
ments, the machine being adjustable to weight of fabric and of 
thread. Of these machines, there are two general types. In one 
the stitching is done first and then the hole is cut; in the other 
the hole is cut first, and then stitched around. The operator 
places the material beneath a clamp in the required position under 
the needle, and turns on the power by means of a foot press or 
treadle, or by a hand or finger lever. Otherwise the machine is 
automatic in all its movements. The needle travels the length 
of the buttonhole, making a purl stitch, bars the ends and cuts 
the thread, the material being held stationary while the stitching 
mechanism travels around the buttonhole. The operator then 
raises the presser foot, releasing the work, and inserts the cloth 
in position for another buttonhole. The machine can be easily 
adjusted to any width-bite or gauge. The high purl makes a 
perfect imitation of a hand-worked buttonhole. 

In this work the operator is responsible for two things which 



252 Evansville Vocational Survey . 

require constant attention: (1) Buttonholes must be kept in 
perfect alignment, straight or curved, and equally distant from 
the edge of the garment; (2) the work must be watched while 
the buttonhole is being made, so that the action of the knife 
which cuts the buttonhole may be stopped if the thread breaks 
or the stitches do not fall in place properly. 

For stock garments, the operator of the buttonhole machine 
is required to know each style of garment, so that she may follow 
the directions on the routing ticket as to number and size of 
buttonholes to be made. She must also know how to thread the 
machine and adjust the bobbin, and must understand the action 
of the machine well enough to report defective action for repairs. 

Steady nerves, good physique, good health, good eyesight and 
endurance are the essential physical qualifications. Although the 
making of machine buttonholes is not considered arduous, persons 
of excitable or nervous temperament should not be encouraged 
to undertake it, if it Is found that the machine, which acts with 
a chopping noise, excites them. Both men and women operate 
buttonhole machines. Young persons should not be placed at 
this work until after they have become accustomed to factory 
work. 

Button clamping. Buttons used on overalls are clamped into 
the cloth by machine. The worker inserts the edge of the gar- 
ment and with a treadle starts the machine, which automatically 
drops the button in place, and brings a clamp into position on 
the wrong side of the cloth. As the button and clamp come 
together, the machine presses the hilt, or stem, of the button 
through the cloth, and clamps, or rivets, the two together. When 
the operation is completed, the machine stops automatically. 

Button sewing. The eyelet button used on shirts and trousers 
is sewed on by machine. Button-sewing machines are somewhat 
similar in construction to the buttonhole machine, and are also 
easy to operate. The button is slipped into a holder in the presser 
foot, and the garment placed in position. The needle passes back 
and forth through the holes, until the machine stops automatically. 
The machine is equipped with automatic thread-tying and thread- 
cutting devices, and with clamps that can be adjusted to any 
required size of button. It makes a specified number of stitches 
for attaching the button, always including the tying stitches, 
stops automatically when the needle is at its highest point, and 
cuts the threads off close to the under side of the fabric. Although 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 253 

these operations are largely automatic, an accurate eye is required 
of the worker, who spaces the buttons and determines the align- 
ment. Girls must become expert in setting the button at the 
proper distance from the edge, so as to prevent pulling out, and 
make a smooth lap when buttoned. 

Eyelet making. Operation of the eyelet machine is similar 
to that of the buttonhole machine. The eyelet machine consists 
of a feed tub through which the eyelets are fed, a punch and a 
die. It is operated by a foot treadle. A garment is placed in 
position over the die, and, as the foot treadle is pressed, the 
punch, which has a pointed end, descends, carrying with it an 
eyelet. A hole is thus made in the material, and as the punch 
comes in contact with the die the curved edges of the eyelets are 
forced around the hole in the cloth, clamping the edges securely 
together. 

Pocket setting. Two types of pockets are used, the patch pocket 
and the set-in pocket. When the patch pocket is used, the patch 
is hemmed at the top on the two-needle, flat-bed machine, which 
puts in two rows of stitching in one operation. The edge of the 
pocket is turned under, placed in position on the garment and 
sewed in place on the two-needle machine. The use of the two- 
needle machine simplifies the process, and the fabric which is firm 
is readily handled by this method. Patch pockets are used on 
jackets and shirts, as well as on overalls. Set-in pockets are 
made as follows : The sewers seam the pocket pieces together 
and turn in the raw edges. They then insert the top edges of 
the pocket through the slit, stitching the slit edges and the 
pockets together on the wrong side, pull the pocket through the 
opening so that the raw edges of the pocket and the seam are on 
the wrong side of the garment, and stitch around the opening 
of the pocket on the right side to give it firmness. Coin and 
watch pockets are set in with the belt. This is considered the most 
skilled of all the operations on these garments. 

Back and bib seaming. Back and bib seaming is really the 
first constructive operation on overalls performed by the women. 
The girl places the two edges to be sewed together in the folder 
of the flat-top machine with the butterfly attachment, and turns 
on the power by means of a foot press. The edges of the cloth 
are turned under and sewed down in a flat seam with double- 
chain stitching. The foot of the machine is raised or lowered by 
means of a foot press. 



254 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Bottom hemming. The bottom hemmer hems the bottom of 
the overalls. The machine used has a side arm upon which the 
worker places the bottom edge of the garment. As the one row 
of stitching is put in, the hem is turned by hand. The worker 
must be careful to put in the same width of hem each time to 
secure equal lengths for the two legs of the garment. In the 
one - establishment where trousers are made there is a special 
machine for blind stitching the hem, so that the stitching is not 
visible on the right side. 

Body work on overalls. The body workers make white front 
pockets and put them in, sew on match pockets and watch pockets, 
put flies on both sides, join fronts and sew on tickets and tabs. 

The fly, or the placket, of the trousers is faced, a buttonhole 
piece stitched on the one side of the opening, and an extension 
piece for the buttons on the other side. The operator who makes 
the fly or placket makes and faces the buttonhole side, sets in 
the buttonhole strip and sets on the button extension. When 
this is completed, the band across the top is sewed on, pocket 
inserted and a second row of stitching is put in for finish and 
durability. This work requires considerable skill, for the operator 
inserts the pocket with the belt, and is obliged to keep the gar- 
ment in shape while the work is being done. 

The bibs and backs are then joined by a flat fell seam through 
the center. A special belt machine is used on overalls for putting 
the belt, overalls and bib together. A folder on top turns in the 
edge of the bib, a guide holds the edge of the overalls straight, 
and another folder containing belting, 2*4 inches wide and 50 
yards in length to the piece, turns in the edges of the belt. Thus 
three edges are turned in at one time. The machine also sews 
the back belt and overalls together. Here four edges are turned 
in and stitched with two rows of stitching on each edge. The 
material as it passes through the machine is held flat by a roller 
back of the presser foot. The next operation, called the second 
part, consists of turning in and hemming the bib on three sides. 

When the pockets have been made, the leg seams stitched and 
the flies put on, the two parts are joined, usually on the two- 
needle machine, which fells both edges and makes two rows of 
stitching in one operation. This operation differs from two- 
needle felling in that the two edges joined are biased, or shaped, 
edges. The hem in the bottom is turned by hand and stitched on 
the edge, and the end of the pocket is tacked. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 255 

Special work performed by women is the making of straps, or 
suspenders. Those performing this operation are required to 
make nothing else. The straps are usually made so as to contain 
two brand labels in the back. 

Before making buttonholes and sewing on buttons, garments 
are examined and places for buttonholes and buttons sometimes 
marked. The usual buttonhole machines are used for making 
outside and fly buttonholes. The button sewers are used to put 
on either closed or open-top metal buttons, with tack fasteners. 
The button sewer usually attaches suspenders, folds each garment 
and places them in bundles ready for the shipping clerk. 

Sleeve making. Shirt sleeves are made either in one piece or 
in two pieces. "When two pieces are used, the parts are joined by a 
plain flat felled seam on the two-needle machines. Facing the 
placket is the principal work in sleeve-making. An extended 
continuous facing is fed into the machine and is put on the placket 
with two rows of stitching, one on each edge, the raw edges of 
the facing being at the same time turned in. The placket is made 
before the sleeve is joined, so the work is flat under the presser 
foot. This work, though frequently given to beginners, is rather 
difficult, since it requires close attention and accuracy in making 
measurements by eye. 

Sleeve and button piece facing. The sleeve and button piece 
machine is used in putting a strip around the opening of a sleeve, 
and a facing on the front for a button piece. It contains an 
upper and under folder, and a guide. There are two needles on 
top and two underneath. Two parallel rows of chain stitching are 
made, one on each edge of the strip. 

Sleeve setting. Sleeve setting in every branch of the garment 
industries is considered an important and difficult process, since 
the appearance and comfortable fit of the garment greatly depend 
upon it. It is done on a flat-bed, two-needle machine which turns 
in the edges of the cloth, and puts in the two rows of stitching 
in one operation, the processes being the same on both jackets 
and shirts, except insofar as it is affected by the weight of the 
material. For this work the operator takes the body piece after 
the yoke has been set on and shoulder seams stitched, lays it over 
the top edge of the sleeve, lapping the two parts just enough 
for the seam and the turn-in, inserts the edges in the attachments 
which turn in the edges of the cloth, and guides the two parts 
under the needle during the stitching process. As the armhole 



256 Evansville Vocational Survey 

is nearly straight and the top of the sleeve is somewhat lapped, 
the two edges do not feed in evenly, hence the process requires 
considerable manipulative skill and judgment, since too much 
cloth fed in pleats while too little frays out. The operation is 
more difficult than the usual flat fell seaming, on account of the 
shaped edges to be run into the felling attachment. The cloth 
used is firm, however, and except for the weight is more easily 
managed for this process than are light, soft fabrics. The work 
is somewhat more skillful than such operations as collar-making 
and shoulder-seaming, although the degree of skill varies with 
the different kinds of material handled. The process is never 
sufficiently mechanical to be done without judgment and thought 
on the part of the worker. 

Collar and cuff making. Collar bands and cuffs are made by 
the same method. The operator places the parts of the collar 
or cuff together face to face, sews a plain seam, turns it, folds 
corners, if square corners are used, and puts in a row of stitching 
on the right side for strength and finish. Much of the work is 
done with the aid of a specially constructed guide, which regu- 
lates the depth of the seams. The work may be readily learned 
and, after a few weeks' practice, becomes somewhat automatic 
in the hands of the skillful worker. 

Setting on collars. Setting collars into the collar band re- 
quires greater skill than does collar-making. The collar must be 
set into the band at uniform depth and must be put on evenly and 
exactly, so that it will meet on a line with the center of the box 
pleat. It is stitched into place by a single row of stitching. As 
the collar is placed in position in the band and held without a 
guide, accuracy depends largely upon the skill of the worker. 
Slight irregularities in this operation destroy the shape of the 
collar, and it is important that this w^k be done accurately. 
From 12 to 18 dozen can be turned out by one girl in each day. 

Making fronts and bosoms. This work varies according to 
the style of the garment. The fronts of working shirts are fin- 
ished with a facing and a pleat. The front is made by putting 
an extension facing on one side of the front opening for the 
buttons, and sewing on a strip to resemble a box pleat on which 
the buttonholes are made. A strip of material 52 yards in length 
and l 1 ^ inches wide is fed into a folder, which turns in both 
edges. The front opening of the shirt is put in from the right- 
hand side of the machine, over the facing, and a strip of cloth 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 257 

two inches wide is fed into a second folder on top. Four rows 
of stitching are made simultaneously to hold the box plait and 
facing together. The operator must feed the work into the 
machine evenly. Greater skill is necessary than for most machine 
work. On the other side of the front opening in the shirt, a facing, 
or button piece, fed into the machine from the left-hand side, is 
put on with two rows of stitching, one on each edge as in the 
sleeve facing. A second operator finishes the bottom and stays 
the bottoms of the front. 

Putting on collar hands. Putting on the collar band is con- 
sidered by many operators the most difficult operation in shirt- 
making. In this operation the worker sews the collar band to 
the shirt with a plain seam or with one row of stitching when 
the lower edges of the band, made by another operator, have 
been turned in ready to be put on the shirt, as the seam must 
be of uniform depth, and the curved part of the neck of the shirt 
stitched or held in during the process, the work demands consid- 
erable skill and judgment. The distance from the center part 
to the shoulder seam must be the same on both sides of the shirt 
to insure the right set of the finished garment. This worker 
needs to know how to correct imperfect, or uneven work, such as 
unequal spacing or too great depth of seams. Depth of seams is 
sometimes regulated by a gauge which relieves the worker of part 
of the responsibility in this operation. 

Box plaiting. The box plait machine is used to put box plaits 
on the fronts of shirts. The machine contains four needles which 
make four rows of stitching simultaneously. If but two rows are 
desired, two of the needles are removed. 

Hemming shirts. The bottom of the shirt is hemmed through 
a presser foot hemmer, and the gussets set in during the hemming 
process. As the bottom of the shirt is shaped, this process re- 
quires considerable skill. The operator inserts the edge of the 
garment in the hemmer, and manipulates the garment during the 
hemming process, so as to keep the hem uniform. As the hem 
is being made the operator folds the gusset and inserts it in the 
hemmer, so that it will be stitched in place at the side seams 
of the shirt. Hemming requires a rather high degree of manip- 
ulative ability, and constant attention to the work. No method 
has been devised for this process, which eliminates the worker's 
responsibility for the success of the work. Too much cloth fed 
into the hemmer clogs the hem and too little causes it to fray out. 

17-5543 



258 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Yoke setting. Yoke setting is stitching the two parts of the 
yoke to the back of the shirt. The operator lays one part of the 
yoke under the presser foot, lays the back of the shirt on the 
yoke, lays the other part of the yoke on top of the back with the 
edges all turned in the same direction, stitches a plain seam across, 
joining the three parts together and distributing the gathers in 
proper position. She may or may not turn the parts of the yoke 
into position after the seam has been stitched, and run an extra 
row of stitching along the seam near the edge for finish and 
strength. For this work the operator needs to know how 7 to lay 
the parts together, wdiere the gathers should come, the amount 
to be gathered in and how to distribute the gathers. 

Shoulder joining. Shoulder joining is a relatively simple 
process. It consists of joining the fronts of the shirt to the back 
with a flat-fell seam. The w T orker inserts the front between the 
two parts of the yoke at the shoulder, and stitches the parts 
together on a two-needle machine which turns the cloth in as it 
is passed under the presser foot. The parts of the garment, as 
they pass under the machine, must be so held together as to make 
the seam of uniform depth, with edges turned in so that they 
will not fray. This operation requires more knowledge of the 
garment, but less manipulative skill than hemming or sleeve- 
making, hence it is not entrusted to beginners until they have 
demonstrated their skill in sewing and handling w r ork. 

Pressing. The pressers are usually men. They press the ma- 
terial at certain stages in its manufacture and press the garment 
upon its completion. An electric iron weighing from 20 to 40 
pounds is used, attached to a long iron arm which can be moved 
as desired. It is lowered by a foot press which requires consider- 
able weight to move it. No extra moves are permitted in this 
work. Only one stroke of the wet sponge, and one stroke of the 
hot electric iron, are necessary. 

In one establishment the shirt-presser is a woman. She uses 
a gas iron with perforations in the bottom. Through two rubber 
tubes gas and steam pass into the iron. The steam dampens the 
shirt as the iron passes over it. This woman works each day 
uiUil she has completed 50 dozen, and is paid 2 cents a dozen. 
It is necessary to lift the heavy iron across the board each time 
it is used. More pressure is used witli the right arm, causing 
the right shoulder to be drawn forward and elevated. 

Work on trousers. A few cheap trousers are manufactured in 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 259 

one establishment, many of the processes used being the same 
as those in making overalls. The trousers are not lined, and no 
stiffening or padding is used. The work is. therefore, compar- 
atively simple. The principal processes are the following : Pocket- 
making; making of flies, loops and tunnels; putting on bands; 
seaming; serging; tacking belt straps; buttonholing; button sew- 
ing, and hemming. 

Flap, set-in and piped pockets are used in trousers, being 
sewed in without basting, although the place for the front pocket 
is marked. The pockets are serged so that there is no need of 
seaming and turning, which has been the method in past years. 
Trimming sewers sew up the darts, put on the crotch pieces and 
make the watch pockets. The serging of the side seams is the 
same as that on the pockets, and is done before the seams are 
sewed up. Outside seamers put on flies and sew backs and fronts 
together. The front presser presses the pockets on the outside 
seam as far as the indicated notch, and the back seam on the 
white fly, and creases the black fly. After pressing the front 
pockets are serged and then stitched on the right side by the 
machine. Tunnels are trapezoidal pieces of stiffened cloth used 
for decoration to take the place of belt straps. Tongue loops are 
made on waist bands to hold belts in place. Flies are stitched 
around the edge, one seam being stitched twice. These oper- 
ations conclude all that are performed before the garments are 
sent to the first examiner, Avho must pass judgment on all work 
done. Next one edge of the flies is serged. 

Matching and sewing the inside seams is a very particular 
operation, and after it is performed the work is immediately 
examined, because sequent operations are largely dependent upon 
accuracy at this point. The buttons are then sewed on the flies. 
For a third time the examiner must approve, this time to pass 
on the placing of the buttons. The examiner stands the greater 
part of the time. Another important process is that of marking 
places for the two hip buttons and for the band buttons, before 
they are sewed on. The girl who does the marking sits at a 
table upon which she places the garment and marks with chalk. 

All seams inside and out are then pressed, and such seams are 
stayed. 

A bias fold, called the curtain, is placed inside the band to 
form a finish. The two edges of the fold are placed together, 
sewed down and then the curtain is stitched inside the band. 



260 EVANSVILLE VOCATIONA1 SURVEY 

After four inside buttons are placed on the band beneath the 
tunnels, the trousers pass through the hands of the ' ' round corner 
presser," who with one stroke of the damp sponge and one of 
the heavy electric iron presses flat the round corners of the band. 

The bottoms of the trousers are for the second time measured 
and are trimmed according to the number placed on the ticket. 
The same worker marks the width of the hem to be placed by 
the bottom-feller. The hems of the cheaper trousers are left raw, 
while the more expensive are turned. 

The so-called "finishers" fold by hand the front and back 
linings and tack the waist lining four times on each side. This 
work is done by several elderly women. It is not skilled, and 
it does not require rapid movements. The women sit at their 
work. As there has been no need of bastings, there are no thread- 
pullers, but threads left by seamers, sergers and other workers 
must be clipped. The girls who do this work, standing, are young, 
and seem to require no other qualification than that of capacity 
for speed. From the thread-trimmers the garments go to the 
pressers. The first one presses only the tops of the trousers, but 
the second, called the " off-presser, " presses the entire garment 
and thus finishes the actual making of the garment. 

Testing the work of the size ticket-seamer is the next oper- 
ation, which is done by a girl who stands to measure lengths 
and widths. This girl adds a new size ticket much larger than 
the original ticket. Again the garment is examined at a glance, 
for all operations, overlooked threads are clipped and the trousers 
brushed, folded and made ready for the stockroom. 

Labeling. A label bearing the name of the brand, manufac- 
turer, and sometimes that of the buyer, with lot and size, waist 
and length, and price, is placed on each pair of overalls. A hanger, 
a woven label bearing the name of the brand, is sewed in the 
back of the neck, and a small square ticket containing the number 
of lot and size is sewed near the bottom of each shirt and jacket. 
Requirements of the girls who place labels on garments are 
speed and accuracy in putting the labels on right side up. The 
ticket girl sews on buttons when there are no tickets to be 
stamped. 

Examining. The examiner looks over the finished product for 
imperfect or unfinished work, and clips off loose ends. Every 
garment industry makes provision for this kind of work. On 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 261 

rough garments the greater part of examining is done when the 
product is completed. 

The worker should have a knowledge of the completed gar- 
ment, be quick to detect imperfect work, know where to send work 
back for repairs and be able, in some cases, to make necessary 
repairs herself. She should be able to do plain hand sewing. 
Good eyesight is also essential. The examiner sits at her work, 
as a rule, and tables and chairs are low so that she may work 
without strain. Bright, alert, capable girls and women are chosen 
for this work; hence it would appear that it requires intelligent, 
reliable workers. Examining does not fit for other positions 
in the factory. In factories which make an inexpensive product 
which must be turned out rapidly, the work is only slightly 
varied, and is less exacting than in the factories which make a 
more complicated product. 

Awning and tent processes. Awnings, porch curtains and sev- 
eral different styles of tents are made to order in this establish- 
ment. Women workers to the number of seventy-five are employed 
during the busy season, from March to July, but during 
the winter, the dull season, only ten to twelve are employed. 

The first operations, those of laying, marking and cutting, are 
as in the other establishments performed by men. 

The scallop-marker traces scallops on the heavy striped awn- 
ing canvas, using as a pattern a piece of tin about a yard in 
length, in which the scallops are cut. The scalloper cuts the 
scallops in the edges of the awnings with a pair of shears some- 
what larger than the size used in the home. Scallop-binders sew 
tape on the edges of scallops. A simple attachment to hold the tape 
in place is fastened on the machine. 

Seaming is the work of the greater number of women workers. 
These workers join the top and the two end pieces of tents and 
awnings, hem the edges, which are turned by hand, and put in 
the small ropes. Both the one and two-needle machines are used 
for seaming. Other operations, such as putting in grummets, 
framing and packing for shipment, are performed by men. 

Work of forewomen. The forewoman is assistant to the fore- 
man. To her the foreman delegates such work as placing and 
training new workers and checking up work from time to time 
during the day. In some cases she does the selecting and hiring 
of women. She recommends girls for increase in wages when 
deserving it, or for discharge if they cannot do the work. She 
receives the imperfect work from the examiner, turns it back 



262 Evansville Vocational Survey 

for repairs to the worker and gives directions as to the way it 
is to be done. In some cases she herself is the examiner and 
receiver of all finished work. She is always a skilled workwoman 
who knows every detail of the work she directs. In one factory 
where, owing to the small number engaged in sewing, it is not 
necessary that one person shall give her entire time to teaching 
and supervising, the forewoman operates some machine during 
her spare time. In this factory the same group of workers makes 
both overalls and jackets, and each worker has been trained to 
perform any one of the operations carried on in the shop. 



VII. GAS ENGINE MANUFACTURING 



1. General Finding's 

Importance of the industry. This industry, a recent acquisi- 
tion to Evansville from another state, is represented by one estab- 
lishment employing nearly 600 men. The increasing popularity 
of farm tractors and engines requiring gasoline power opens up 
a very promising field for future development, and at no time 
since locating in the city has the establishment been able to supply 
the demand for its product. 

Product. Engines from 1% to 50 horsepower, mounted either 
on stationary bases, or on steel trucks or skids, are made in the 
Evansville establishment, and the firm has lately engaged in the 
building of tractors, which will require more men and an enlarged 
plant. To a considerable extent the factory produces the jigs 
and fixtures, milling cutters and special tools and equipment with 
which it works. 

• Standardization of product. The industry is characteristic- 
ally one which produces standardized types of product. This 
fact has an important vocational consequence, since standardiza- 
tion of product enables the industry, in general, to dispense with 
the services of highly skilled machinists. Standardization and 
simplicity of product, together, determine the specialization and 
diversity of employment in the industry. 

Characteristics of the industry. For the purposes of voca- 
tional education, the establishment manufacturing gas engines 
and tractors is of interest as being the best example in Evans- 
ville of a characteristically modern type of highly organized 
machine industry, and of specialized production under efficient man- 
agement. The equipment and processes of the industry are sim- 
ilar to the equipment and processes of foundries and machine 
shops generally, but this equipment and all of the work done is 
more or less specialized, being devoted to production of a stand- 
ardized product. In this establishment iron ore is smelted and 
the iron cast and machined into a great variety of shapes or 
parts, which are finally assembled into a highly complex product. 
Utilization of the best machinery available, and efficient organ- 
ization of the working force in the several departments are abso- 
lutely essential. 

In all of this work production is on a sufficiently large scale 

263 



264 Evansville Vocational Survey 

and sufficiently standardized to permit a high degree of special- 
ization. Comparatively few all-round machinists are employed, 
but the industry as an industry performs on a large scale the 
work which the individual machinist in his trade performs on a 
small scale in the general machine shop. The vocational require- 
ments and opportunities of the industry as a unit, rather than of 
the separate trades and employments in the industry, are chiefly 
considered in the following account, the trade of the machinist, 
for example, and its requirements being treated in the section 
of this Report devoted to machine shops and metal products estab- 
lishments (pp. 324 to 325). 

Specialization of processes. The principal machine operations 
of the industry are performed on planers and shapers, lathes, 
milling machines, drill presses and grinders. These operations 
include planing and shaping vertical and horizontal surfaces 
irregular and taper planing; slotting; key seating; shaping in 
centers; turning on centers; chuck and face plate work; facing 
drilling; boring; reaming; thread cutting; taper turning; knurl 
ing ; filing ; polishing f horizontal, vertical, taper and end milling 
sawing; counterboring ; tapping; jig work; internal and external 
cylindrical grinding; surface and cutter grinding; plane, com- 
pound and differential indexing as applied to straight, spiral and 
stagger fluting; graduating for gear, rack cutting, hobbing and 
cam cutting. Benchwork includes chipping and filing, assem- 
bling, scraping, laying-out work, babbiting and soldering. 

Machine operators whose duty it is, either to place the rough 
forgings and castings in the machine, or to take out the finished 
product, make up a large portion of the working force. Other 
men, usually classed as tool makers, make the jigs and fixtures, 
milling cutters and all special tools used in the main shop. Thus 
the workers fall into two general classes, machine operators and 
tool makers, and owing to the division of labor and specialization 
of processes only an inconsiderable number of competent all- 
round machinists are required. 

Department organization. In Table IV the employees of 
this establishment are classified by departments and employments, 
and by age as being over or under 21 years. Of the 595 employees 
36 are under "21, and 559 are 21 and over; 235 work in the foundry 
yard and rooms; 148 in the machine shop and tool room; 77 in the 
assembling room; 43 iu the testing room; 37 in the inspection de- 
partment, and 55 in other departments. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 



265 



Table IV — Employees in Gas Engine Factory Classified by Depart- 
ment, Occupational Group and Age 



Department and Occupational Group 



Employees 



Total 



21 Years 

of Age 
and Over 



Under 21 

Years of 

Age 



Total 

Foundry yard 

Cupola tenders 

Laborers 

Core room 

Foreman 

Core makers 

Oven tenders 

Core carriers 

Foundry room 

Foremen 

Molders 

Helpers 

Cranemen 

Laborers 

Cleaning room 

Sand blast operators. 

Chippers 

Grinders 

Tumbling mill men . . 

Machine shop 

Lathe men 

Grinders 

Drillers 

Boring mill men. . . . 
Mining machine men 
Special machine men 
Babbitt bench man. . 
Truck handlers 

Tool room 

Machine hands 

Tool grinders 

Special machine men 

Tool makers 

Blacksmiths 

Tool crib tender .... 

Assembling room 

Floor assemblers .... 
Bench assemblers . . . 
Truckers 



595 

20 

5 

15 

35 
1 

22 



140 

7 

80 

35 

2 

16 

40 

4 

19 

11 

6 

115 
20 

7 
40 

8 
16 
21 

1 

2 

33 

16 

4 

2 

8 
2 

1 

77 

20 

55 

2 



559 



36 



19 


1 


4 


1 


15 




22 


13 


1 




12 


10 


7 


1 


2 


2 


136 


4 


7 




80 




32 


3 


2 




15 


1 


37 


3 


4 




17 


2 


10 


1 


6 




110 


5 


20 




6 


1 


37 


3 


8 




16 




20 


1 


1 




2 




32 


1 


16 




4 




1 


1 


8 




2 




1 




77 




20 




55 




2 





266 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Table IV — Employees in Gas Engine Factory Classified by Depart- 
ment, Occupational Group and Age — Continued 



Department and Occupational Group 



Employees 



Total 



21 Years 

of Age 
and Over 



Under 21 

Years of 

Age 



Testing room 

Testers 

Truckers 

Pattern shop 

Foreman 

Pattern makers 

Carpenters 

Paint shop 

Foreman 

Washer 

Fillers 

Stripers 

Painters and varnishers 

Truckers 

Drafting and designing department. 
Draftsmen and designers 

Inspection department 

Inspectors of casting 

Inspectors of finished parts 

Inspectors of assembled engines. . . 

Inspectors of tested engines 

Inspectors of finished product . . . . 

Warehouse and shipping department 

Crating men 

Truckers and handlers 



43 

40 

3 

8 
1 
4 
3 

27 
1 
1 

10 
2 

12 
1 

4 
4 

37 
3 

14 
2 
3 

15 

16 

6 

10 



43 

40 

3 

8 
1 
4 
3 

27 
1 
1 

10 
2 

12 
1 

4 

4 

32 
3 
9 
2 
3 

15 

12 
4 
8 



What is required of workers. For the more skilled workers 
a general knowledge of shop practice is essential, such as is re- 
quired for the making out of time cards, for tool checking and 
for observance of rules established to insure the safety and health 
of workers. In each line of work some special knowledge is 
required, as, for example, regarding maximum feeds and cutting 
speeds of certain tools, gear combinations, thread systems, com- 
putations and measurements, tapers, the properties of cast, 
w r rought and malleable iron, of machinery, cold-rolled, tool and 
high-speed steel, of brass, copper, solder and babbitt metal, and 
of lubricants and cutting compounds. The workers' special train- 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 267 

ing and mechanical skill must be, of course, sufficient to enable 
him to keep in condition the machine or machines which he oper- 
ates, some of which are difficult, and the tools which he uses, and 
he should be somewhat informed regarding the general equip- 
ment and the processes at least of the division or department in 
which he works. While the technical knowledge and skill of the 
machinist trade may be of advantage in any of the employments, 
these employments, with some exceptions, represent severally only 
standardized, special applications of such knowledge and skill, 
and do not give any considerable opportunity for the exercise of 
trade knowledge. 

Shop training. Competent foremen are employed who are 
able to teach the operation of complicated machines, and, in gen- 
eral, such instruction can be given in the shop as is required to 
make a worker a productive machine operator. Such instruction, 
however, is not adequate preparation for advancement in the 
industry. 

Can the schools co-operate? It will be obvious from the fore- 
going account, and from the occupational analyses following, that 
the machine operator, as such, has no great occasion to utilize 
technical knowledge, and that his productivity is not materially 
increased by such knowledge. If, however, such an operator is 
ambitious to advance in the industry to positions of foremanship 
he should acquire a fund of information regarding the organ- 
ization, practice and processes of the industry, regarding types 
of engines and tractors and regarding machines and equipment. 
If he is ambitious to become an expert trade machinist or tool 
maker, he requires training and instruction which can be most 
advantageously given, much of it in the school. Some of the men 
are content to remain at one machine for years, and for these 
men the school can offer little that is of value. Others, however, 
are eager to learn the elements of a trade, as machinists or tool 
makers, and for these, courses organized for machinists are, in 
general, entirely suitable. The machines used in this industry are 
the common types of lathes, shapers, planers, milling and grind- 
ing machines and drill presses, and the tools are such as the ma- 
chinist uses generally. The school training should, therefore, be 
adapted to the needs of the trade rather than to specializations 
of the industry. 

During the progress of the Survey an agreement between the 
school authorities and the employees was denned, in accordance 



268 Evansville Vocational Survey 

with which eight apprentices will be selected for instruction on 
a part-time basis, the company agreeing to enter into a trade 
agreement to that effect. A part-time day course suitable for 
apprentices in this industry should, therefore, be provided. 

2. Occupational Analyses 

Foundry yard. Work in the foundry yard centers largely 
around the charging, firing and discharging of the cupola. Five 
cupola tenders and fifteen laborers are employed in this work. 

The cupola is a sheet metal cylinder supported on four legs 
at a height of about four feet from the floor. It is lined with 
firebrick and clay to protect it from the intense heat of the fire 
within. The bottom of the cupola is formed by a pair of hinged 
doors, which are swung up into position and clamped. On these 
doors sand is distributed, forming a layer about four inches 
thick, which serves as a bed for the fire and protects the doors 
from the heat. About four inches above the sand layer is a hole 
cut in the side of the cupalo, through which the molten metal 
is drawn. While the heating process is going on this hole is 
plugged with fireclay. Around the base of the cupola is an air 
drum which supplies, through reverse tuyeres, or nozzles, leading 
into the cupola the air blast, or forced draft, necessary to produce 
the temperature required for smelting the ore. 

The cupola projects through the roof of the foundry, and at 
the second floor it has a door through which it is charged. The 
charging process is as follows : A coke fire is built in the bottom, 
and is well covered with several inches of coke. On this are shov- 
eled alternate layers of carefully weighed and proportioned ore 
and coke, and occasionally thin layers of limestone, used to sep- 
arate the slag, until the cupola is filled to the second-floor door. 

When the cupola is charged the blast is turned on. At the 
proper time the liquid metal is drawn off and poured into the 
molds. The bottom of the cupola is dropped at the close of the 
day, and the fire and slag are cleaned out. 

The waste material from the cupola is shoveled into the cinder 
mill. Fine particles of iron drop through this screen and are 
gathered up and returned to the cupola to be remelted. A ton 
or more of iron screenings are saved by this machine in the course 
of a day. 

Core room. The equipment of the core room consists of a core 
sand mixer and a core oven. Into the core sand mixer, which is 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 269 

a cylindrical machine containing revolving knives, the core sand 
is shoveled, molasses and core oil being poured in at the same 
time. By setting the knives in motion the core sand is thoroughly 
mixed. It is then removed and taken to the core makers, where it 
is made up into cores, which are baked in the core oven, a large 
sheet metal oven equipped with movable frames traveling on roll- 
ers and heated by a coke fire beneath. The cores are placed on 
these frames and pushed into the oven. 

In the core room twenty- two men are employed as core makers, 
ten of whom are under 21 years of age. There are eight oven tend- 
ers, four core carriers and one foreman. 

Foundry room,. The operations of the foundry room embrace 
machine, bench and floor moulding. 

The several types of machines used in machine moulding may 
be briefly described as follows: 

The squeezer type of machine consists of a main frame sup- 
porting a table on which is placed the pattern. A head hinged 
to the frame is tilted back, while the drag of the flask is being 
placed over the pattern and filled with sand. When the drag 
has been filled the head is first brought to a vertical position 
and is then, by means of a lever, forced down, compressing the 
sand in the drag. The head is then raised and tilted back, and 
the drag removed. The cope of the mould is similarly treated. 

The air vibrator squeezer has an air vibrator attachment 
which vibrates the flask as it is being lifted for the purpose of 
removing the pattern. The operation of this machine is similar 
to that of the squeezer machine described above. 

The stripper-plate machine consists of a main frame support- 
ing a stripper plate to which is fitted the pattern to be moulded. 
By means of a lever the pattern is brought up in position above 
the plate. The drag is placed over it, filled with sand and tamped. 
By means of the lever the pattern is then drawn beneath the 
stripper plate and the drag removed and placed on the floor 
ready to receive the cope, which is similarly prepared. 

The jolting and automatic roll-over machine consists of a bed 
which can be raised and lowered at a rapid rate to produce a 
jolting effect. On this bed is placed a pattern in position to be 
moulded. The drag of the flask is placed over the pattern and 
filled with sand. Air is then turned on, and the flask jolted for 
the purpose of tamping the sand. The head, or automatic roll- 
over, is brought down and clamped to the flask, and the head 



270 Evansville Vocational Survey 

and flask are raised, rolled over through a half circle and placed 
in a position to be received by the second moulder, who removes 
the flask and places the mould on the floor ready for the cope, 

which again is prepared in a similar manner. 

On the squeezer and air vibrator machines usually small parts 
of the gasoline engine are moulded. On the jolting automatic 

roll-over machine larger work is done, such as casting engine 
water hoppers. The stripper-plate machine is used for moulding 

engine beds, or bases. 

Bench and floor moulders work on pieces that cannot be moulded 
readily on a machine, such as flywheels, pulleys and gear wheels. 
These pieces are moulded in bench or floor flasks. 

The equipment of a bench moulder consists of traveling bench, 
snap flask, shovel, riddle and a full set of moulder's tools. His 
work is putting up moulds of small parts of the gas engine. The 
bench straddles a sand row, and as the sand is used up the moulder 
pushes his bench forward. 

The floor moulder has a row of large flasks distributed along 
a sand row. His work is done on the floor, and he moves his 
tools along as the sand is used up. 

Bench and floor moulders, and operators of moulding machines, 

should all of them be experienced moulders who understand core 

making as well as moulding. They should know how to cut and 

prepare the sand properly for light and for heavy moulding, and 

how to face moulds for different metals, such as iron, brass and 

aluminum. As a means of insuring safety in their work, it is 

extremely important, further, that they understand thoroughly 

the principles and methods of ventilating cores and molds, so as 

to prevent blowing. 

In the foundry room 80 moulders are employed and 35 helpers, 
all of whom except 3 helpers are over 21 years .of age. The 
working force includes also 2 cranemen, 1n' Laborers and 7 fore- 
men. 

Cleaning room. The cleaning room equipment consists of auto- 
matic air chisels, a sand blast, tumbler barrels, swing emery 
Grinders, stationary grinders for rough grinding and ;i disc grinder 
for finishing flat surfaces. Rough castings from the foundry are 
delivered to this department, and it is the duty of the cleaners 
to chip, grind and smooth all rough surfaces on these castings. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 271 

In this department 40 men are employed. The work is un- 
skilled labor, requiring little or no preparation or training such 
as the schools might undertake to give. 

Machine shop. The machine shop employs 115 men, who are 
practically all machine operators. The character of their work 
can best be indicated by giving a description of the several classes 
of machines operated, which include lathes, grinders, drilling 
machines, boring mills, milling machines, planers and special ma- 
chines of various types. 

Lathes 

Three classes of lathes are used in turning the various parts 
of a gasoline engine, namely, the screw-cutting lathe, the turret 
lathe and special pulley lathe. The screw-cutting lathe is used 
for turning crank-shafts, bushings and governor spindles; the 
turret lathe for boring and turning pulleys and pistons, and the 
special pulley lathe for crowning pulleys. 

The screw-cutting lathe is the standard type of machine lathe 
found in machine shops generally. It consists of a horizontal bed, 
a head stock, a tail stock carriage, apron, crossfeed, compound 
rest-back gears, change gears, spindle, lead screw and feed rod 
and several attachments, such as face-plate, chuck, steady rest 
and follow rest. The bed is made heavy so as to retain its shape, 
and is supported on four solid legs. On the top of the bed are 
planed four V-ways on which are placed the head and tail stock 
and the carriage. The head stock is a cast-iron frame with end 
bearings which support the head stock spindle, driving cone and 
gears. On the end of the spindle is screwed the face plate, or 
chuck, as the case may be, and in the end of the spindle is placed 
a taper center on which the work revolves. The tail stock con- 
sists of a cast-iron frame, spindle, screw and center. In the 
spindle is placed the tail stock or dead center, as it is commonly 
called, and the spindle itself travels in and out of the tail stock 
by means of a screw. The carriage is a traveling frame supported 
on the V-ways, and in turn supports the tool rest. The tail stock 
can be moved along the bed to permit of various lengths of work 
being supported betAveen the centers. The carriage and tool 
travels lengthwise of the bed by means of a lead screw and feed 
rod. 

The construction of the turret lathe differs from the screw- 
cutting lathe in that a revolving turret head is attached to the 



272 Evansville Vocational Survey 

tail stock spindle. This head contains several tools, such as 
drills, reamers and taps, which are used for drilling and reaming 
holes in work held in the chuck, revolving on the head stock spin- 
dle. The turret head can be revolved to bring the tools in line 
with the work, and can be traversed lengthwise by means of a 
lever. 

The special pulley lathe differs from the screw-cutting lathe 
only in construction of the carriage, on which are two tools which, 
by means of screws, travel in opposite directions, and on an angle 
with the centers of the lathe. The angle is such as to produce 
the required crown in the pulley. 

Other types of lathes, it may be noted, are used for special 
purposes in other lines of machine work. The precision lathe, 
for example, is used by the tool maker in turning fine, accurate 
work, and the car wheel axle and wheel lathes are special types 
used in locomotive and car repair shops for turning and boring 
car axles and wheels. In every case machinists run these machines 
since skill is required for their operation, especially in the case 
of the precision lathe for tool making. 

Grinders 

Grinders are used for grinding surfaces smooth and accurate 
to finished dimensions. In some cases the work is hardened to 
prevent wear, and in others the work is soft and must be ground 
to run with as little wear as possible in soft material, such as 
babbitted bearings. For these two kinds of work different ma- 
chines and different grinding wheels are used. Another type of 
machine is used for internal grinding of cylinders and other 
machine parts large enough to require clamping to a carriage. 

The universal grinder, like the engine lathe, is designed for 
general work, such as straight and taper grinding, both external 
and internal. It consists of a base, bed, table, head stock, tail 
stock and emery wheel head. The bed is supported on a solid 
base, and contains the mechanism for traversing the table length- 
wise. The table, which rests in V-ways, machined in the top of 
the bed, supports a swivel table, which permits of the work being 
turned at any desired angle. On this swivel table is bolted a 
head and tail stock in which are spindles and dead centers to 
support the revolving work. The head stock spindle has fitted 
to it a dead center pulley, which engages a dog clamped to the 
work between the centers and causes the work to revolve. The 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 273 

emery wheel head is mounted in a slide on the bed, and can be 
moved forward and backward. 

Universal grinders vary somewhat in construction. In some 
cases the cross feed is accomplished by moving the entire bed 
on slides while the wheel remains stationary. In other machines 
built for special kinds of work .the head and tail stock are 
mounted on V-ways in the bed, and can be adjusted for distance 
between centers, while the emery wheel is mounted on a table 
constructed with longitudinal and crossfeeds, for moving the 
wheel along the work instead of the work along the wheel. 
These machines all have numerous chucks and attachments for 
accomplishing various kinds of work. 

The horizontal, or cylinder grinder, as it is commonly called, 
consists of a bed, table and head stock. The table is attached 
to one end of the bed and can be raised or lowered along slides. 
To this table is bolted the cylinder which is to be bored. The 
head stock consists of a traveling spindle on one end of which is 
attached an adjustable eccentric head. The emery wheel is fast- 
ened to this head, and can be adjusted for any size of cylinder. 

The kinds of work ground on these machines include wrist 
pins, piston pins, crank shafts and engine cylinders. The wrist 
pins and piston pins are pack hardened machine steel pins, and 
are ground on the type of machine that has the stationary emery 
wheel head and movable table, containing the head and tail 
stock. Crankshafts are ground on the type of machine having 
the traveling wheel head and engine cylinders on the horizontal 
grinder. 

Drilling Machines 

The several types of drilling machines used in the machine 
industry include the single spindle upright geared machine, the 
upright and horizontal radial drill, and the sensitive or speed drill. 

The upright geared machine consists of a base, column, table, 
spindle, tight and loose pulleys, cone pulleys, and feed gears. A 
horizontal cone and gear shaft revolves in bearings at the top of 
the column, and drives the vertical spindle by means of bevel 
gears. The drill press table is pivoted to the column, and stands 
beneath the drill spindle. This table can be raised or lowered 
or swung sidewise to facilitate adjustment of any kind of work 
that may be placed upon it for drilling. The speed of the drill 
can be changed to suit the work, by shifting the belt from one 
pulley to another. A great variety of work can be done on this 

18-5543 



274 Evansville Vocational Survey 

machine, either with or without jigs, including such operations 
as drilling, reaming, boring, facing, countersinking, and tapping. 
In the gas engine industry, the drill press is used for drilling 
holes in jigs, and for special job work in the tool room. 

The multiple spindle machine has several drill spindles which 
have flexible joints, and run down from the driving spindle to 
the table, where jigs containing work in which a number of holes 
are to be drilled are supported. The holes are usually of dif- 
ferent sizes, and the work is shifted from one spindle to another. 

The upright radial drill consists of a base and a vertical 
column which supports a horizontal arm, so constructed as to 
convey power to a vertical drill spindle which can be moved 
outward in any direction to reach distant holes that require 
drilling. 

The sensitive speed drill may be either single or multiple 
spindle. It is a light machine and the spindle or spindles are 
so arranged as to receive small drills for drilling various sized 
holes in work that is clamped in jigs. 

The operators of the different types of drills are engaged in 
drilling holes in all parts of the gasoline engine. Holes in small 
parts, such as cylinder heads, governor brackets, governor weights 
and valve levers, are drilled by placing the parts in jigs made 
accurately to fit them. It is necessary that this be done in order 
that the parts be interchangeable. This kind of work is done in 
multiple spindle machines, and the drills are arranged in position 
for drilling several holes at a time. Radial drills are used for 
drilling base holes where jigs are not required. 

The drill press operator in some lines of machine manufactur- 
ing has a great variety of careful, accurate work to do. Laying 
out and drilling holes in jig and die work is, in fact, extremely 
accurate work. 

Drilling is done in both flat and round work, and unless the 
operator is skilled the drill will not always go where he intends. 
Boring is often done in a drill press. The work is clamped to the 
table, a boring bar is inserted in the tapered end of the spindle 
and extends down through a hole in the table. The bar is fed 
downward automatically in the same manner as the drill. Pacing 
and countersinking is done with special tools. Holes in large 
castings are drilled and tapped in one setting of the work, and 
holes that are to be bearing surfaces of running parts, or are 
to receive taper pins, are drilled and reamed in the machine. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 275 

Boring Mills 

The boring mills used in a gas engine factory are of three 
types: The vertical revolving spindle type; the horizontal revolv- 
ing spindle type ; and the horizontal revolving table type. 

The vertical revolving spindle mill consists of a heavy vertical 
frame, a table on which the cylinders are clamped for boring, and 
three vertical spindles free to be moved up and down, but geared 
to a driving spindle which is either motor or belt driven. The 
roughing cutter, the finishing cutter, and the reamer are the three 
tools fastened to the lower end of the spindles. After the rough- 
ing cutter is passed through the cylinder, the work is moved to 
the finishing spindle, and finally to the reamer, where it is com- 
pleted and made ready for some other operation. 

The horizontal revolving spindle mill differs from the vertical 
mill in that it has but one spindle. To this spindle a cutter is 
attached. The machine is used for such work as is difficult, 
because of size or shape, to stand in a vertical position. 

The horizontal revolving table mill consists of a heavy bed 
on which is placed a variable speed revolving table. The machine 
frame extends above the table, and supports a vertical spindle 
and several movable arms to which are attached steel cutters. 
The wheel is clamped to the table, and the arms are brought into 
position for rough cutting the rim and hub. Finishing cutters 
follow up to complete the work. By shifting a lever, the speed 
of the table can be increased, and a drill inserted in the spindle, 
brought down and the hub drilled and then reamed. 

The work done on the boring mill is the boring and reaming 
of engine cylinders, and the boring, reaming and turning of engine 
flywheels. The operator receives the cylinders from the cleaning 
room, and mounts and bolts them to the cylinder jig. He then 
locates the jig beneath the "rough boring" spindle by means of 
taper pins fitted in holes drilled in the table. The jig is bolted 
down, the machine set into operation, and automatically the tool 
is fed through the cylinder, taking a rough cut. On completing 
this, the operator releases the jig and locates it in a similar man- 
ner beneath the finishing tool spindle, where it is bolted and the 
finishing cut taken. Again the jig is moved, located beneath the 
reamer spindle, and bolted to the table, and the reaming cut taken 
— which completes the boring w T ork of the cylinder. 

Cylinders of larger sizes are bored on the horizontal spindle 
type machine. The boring is done by one spindle, and in one 



276 Evansville Vocational Survey 

setting of the work. Instead of reaming such work, a special 
finishing tool is ground and a light finishing cut taken, which 
leaves the surface in good condition. 

A great deal of boring is done in large lathes. A piece of work 
is clamped to the lathe carriage, a boring box containing a cutter 
is put between the centers, and the work is traversed lengthwise 
past the cutter. In case the w T ork is too large to be clamped to 
the carriage, a special jig is made to be clamped to the ways of 
the lathe. The work is set up stationary in this jig, and a boring 
bar containing a traveling head is put between the centers. The 
traveling head is automatically fed lengthwise of the bar by 
means of a feed mechanism and a feed screw set into the bar. 

The operator of a boring mill should have about the same 
kind of training as that required by a lathe operator. It is neces- 
sary for him to have a mathematical understanding of the feeds 
and speeds required for carbon and for high speed steel cutters, 
so that he may know when a cutter is being worked up to its 
maximum capacity without injury to the tool. He must under- 
stand angles of clearance and rake, so that he can grind and 
sharpen his tools properly when they become dull. In fact, a 
thorough understanding of cutting tools and their uses is very 
important. General shop knowledge, shop mathematics, and blue 
print reading is the training for this work that makes the differ- 
ence between the intelligent and unintelligent workman. A training 
in the use of precision instruments develops accuracy in measuring 
and calipering. 

Milling" Machines 

The several types of milling machine may be classified as fol- 
lows: The column and knee type of plane and of universal ma- 
chine ; the planer type ; the manufacturing type ; the vertical type ; 
and a class of special machines built for special purposes. 

The plane column and knee type machine consists of the fol- 
lowing parts: Vertical frame or column, knee, saddle table, divid- 
ing head, tail stock, overhead arm, arbor support, spindle and 
spindle gears, driving gear mechanism, and feed and speed change 
gears. To the front of the machine is gibbed the knee, which 
can be raised or lowered by means of a telescope screw. Bolted 
to the top of the knee is a saddle which can be traversed in and 
out to produce cross motion. To this saddle is gibbed the table 
which Ccin be traversed lengthwise to produce longitudinal mo- 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 277 

tion. Thus is obtained vertical, cross and longitudinal feed. To 
the table are bolted the dividing head and the tail stock, which 
are used for work that is to be done between centers. The spindle 
is set in horizontal bearings in the column, and is driven by 
means of the driving gears or the cone pulley. One end of the 
spindle is tapered to receive the arbor which supports the cutting 
tools of the machine. The overhead arm and bracket support the 
arbor. 

The difference between the plane and the universal machines 
of the column and knee type — which are most commonly used of 
all milling machines — is in the number of attachments to the uni- 
versal machine, which makes it adaptable to many operations for 
which the plane machine cannot be used. Some of these attach- 
ments are the vertical head; the slotter, plane, swivel and tilting 
vises; graduated plate; circular, spiral and cam milling, and 
under cutting attachments; and a full line of collets and cutting 
tools for these several attachments. 

The planer type of miller has a traveling bed in which are 
clamped several jigs to which the work to be milled is fastened. 
The cutters are special type cutters, and are fitted to vertical and 
horizontal spindles, which are driven by gears from the power 
spindle. The manufacturing type of milling machine is a small 
machine, adapted to turning out accurate duplicate work, which 
can be held in a vise or jig. The vertical miller is used for face, 
circular, bevel and profile milling. Cams can be cut in this machine 
by means of a master cam for a template. Special types of mill- 
ing machines are used for such work as gear cutting, bolt heading, 
and thread cutting. For simple operations, hand millers are used, 
the work being clamped to a sliding table, and operated with a 
lever. 

The milling machine operator in the gas engine industry per- 
forms such operations as facing flat surfaces in the sides of base 
castings, straddle milling small parts, such as base caps, governor 
brackets, cam rods, and catch blccks. Crank shaft key ways are 
milled with gang mills in an arbor. Three or four crank shafts 
are clamped in a jig, and the key ways all cut at once. Igniter 
cams are milled with end mills by the use of a master cam which 
acts as a guide for the tool. Such operations as facing flat sur- 
faces are performed on a hand milling machine. Straddle mill- 
ing of small parts is done on plane milling machines and cam 
cutting on universal machines. 



278 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Some of the work done on the milling machine in the tool room 
is gear cutting, slotting key ways, fluting, ' counterboring, reaming, 
and many other operations on special tools, jigs, and fixtures to 
be used on other machines in the shop. 

The milling machine operator should have a thorough knowl- 
edge of the different types of milling machines and their attach- 
ments. He should be well trained in the care of such machines 
and should know the use of every attachment, so as to be able 
to take up intelligently any job, performing the required operations 
in the best way possible and most expeditiously. Many jobs can 
be done with any one of several attachments, but there is usually 
one best way. A knowledge of feeds and speeds is extremely impor- 
tant, since time is wasted in operations either in consequence 
of working the material too slowly, or in consequence of dulling 
the cutters, wherever the feed and speed are not regulated to 
secure maximum results. The worker must be able to use measur- 
ing and calipering tools to produce accurate work and prevent 
spoiling work. General knowledge, such as is found in machinists' 
handbooks should be at the operator's command and his training 
should be such as to enable him to use this information. He should 
also be able to read and understand drawings, since time is wasted 
and work often spoiled if he is not able to interpret a blueprint. 

Planers 

There are two types of planers designated by their driving 
mechanisms. They are known as the spur gear planer and spiral 
gear planer. The planer consists of a bed, a table, a vertical 
frame, a cross rail, a planer head, and a driving mechanism. The 
planer bed is a heavy cast iron frame supported on substantial 
legs to make it thoroughly solid. V-ways are machined along 
the top, and in these the table traverses. The planer head is so 
constructed as to travel lengthwise of the cross rail, which is sup- 
ported by the vertical frame of the machine, and is constructed 
so as to be raised or lowered by screws as the work requires. The 
planer tool is clamped in the head, and the work that is to be 
planed is either clamped in a vise or bolted to the table. Vertical 
and horizontal feed rods are attached to the cross rail, and con- 
nected to an automatic feed, which causes the planer head to 
travel either crosswise of the work, or vertically. The driving 
mechanism is arranged in such a position beneath the bed as to 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 279 

cause the planer table to be traversed lengthwise of the bed by 
means of one or the other types of gears previously mentioned. 

The planer is used in the tool room for the purpose of planing 
jigs and pattern work, and for facing foundry flasks. Jig and 
metal pattern work which is the work of highly skilled mechanics, 
comprises the majority of the work done on this machine in the 
gas engine industry. Experimental work on new designs of 
machines is done in the tool room on this machine. 

The operator should be a first-class mechanic, and be so trained 
as to be able to shift on occasion to other tool room machines. 

The Punch Press 

The punch press is used for blanking, piercing, and forming 
sheet metal parts. It consists of a very heavy and solid vertical 
frame, a table, an eccentric shaft, pulleys, and gears; a connecting 
rod and head, and a bolster plate and ram. 

Across the top of the frame is supported in two bearings a 
shaft, in the center of which an eccentric turns. To this eccentric 
is attached a rod carrying a cross head which travels up and down 
between guides. To this head is attached by means of keys, a 
punch, or ram as it is commonly called. Beneath this punch is 
the table on which is placed the die or bolster plate, into which 
the sheet metal is punched and formed. The punched metal is 
removed from the die automatically. .The power for the press is 
delivered to the eccentric shaft by means of gears and pulleys. 

The punch press operator's work is mainly that of stamping 
out small gas engine parts from thin sheet metal. Such parts 
as base cup and connecting rod liners, detent and igniter trip 
blades and speed change levers are punched out on dies made 
especially for the work. The dies are so constructed that one can 
be readily removed from the machine and another inserted in its 
place. 

The punch press is sometimes used as a shear for the purpose 
of cutting into short lengths such stock as small sides of round iron. 

The operator of a punch press should be able to take down 
and set up dies for different kinds of work to be punched. He 
should understand the characteristics of the different kinds of 
metal such as sheet copper, brass, and iron, in order to properly 
handle the metal and prevent buckling and breaking. 



280 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Automatic Machines 

The introduction of automatic machines in the gas engine 
industry has made it possible to manufacture a great many small 
parts very rapidly and economically. Such parts as pins, gears 
and screws are machined on the Potter and Johnson Machine 
for turning, boring, and facing, the Brown and Sharp Gear Cutting 
Machine and the Brown and Sharp Automatic Screw Machine. 

The machine known commercially as the Potter and Johnson 
machine is similar in construction to the turret lathe, with the 
exception that it has cams and gears arranged to make the machine 
work automatically. In boring, reaming, and facing, for example, 
the turret comes forward, completes its operation, returns, indexes, 
and advances for the next operation. The spindle which carries 
the work will increase or decrease its speed, according as the work 
demands. 

The Brown and Sharp Gear Cutter is used by the Gas Engine 
Company for cutting engine gears. It consists of a bed, a head- 
stock, a gear arbor, and a traveling carriage. The gear arbor fits 
in the head-stock, and revolves and indexes by means of special 
gears, for any number of teeth that may be required. On this 
arbor is mounted a number of gear blanks, the traveling carriage 
containing the cutter arbor, automatically comes forward, cuts 
a groove, returns, trips, and causes the head-stock to index one 
tooth. It is then in a position to come forward to cut another 
groove. The head-stock is similar in construction to the dividing 
head of a milling machine. 

The Brown and Sharp Screw Machine is similar in construction 
to a turret lathe, with the exception, again, that by means of earns 
and gears, the turret and cutting tools are made to move auto- 
matically. The speed of the work also is controlled automatically, 
work being fed into the spindle to a stop, clamped, turned, threaded, 
and cut off. This machine consists of a bed supported on a solid 
frame — which contains all of the automatic mechanism — a head- 
stock, and turret. The cams are so constructed as to allow suf- 
ficient time between operations for cooling of the stock. One 
cutter is allowed to operate and return to its position before the 
next one moves forward. The machine is equipped with an oil 
pump which supplies a steady stream of oil to the work during 
the operation. 

The operator of the Potter and Johnson Automatic Machine 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 281 

chucks the gear blanks, starts the machine, and arranges the cutters 
in the proper order of operation. As one cutter after another com- 
pletes its work, the gear is finally completed and removed from 
the machine. It is the operator's duty to see that the machine is 
kept in the best running order; that the flow of oil is sufficient 
to keep the work and the tools cool; and that the tools are kept 
sharp and properly set, so that the finished product may be of 
the required dimensions. It is possible for one operator to take 
care of as many as four of these machines. In operating the 
Brown and Sharp Gear Cutting Machine it is the operator 's duty to 
keep the gear cutter sharp and to change gear blanks on the arbor 
as fast as the gears are completed. In operating the Brown and 
Sharp Automatic Screw Machine, it is the operator's duty 
to have his machine and tools properly sharpened, and set 
to complete an accurate screw. Besides this, it is only necessary 
for him to see that the rough stock is kept supplied to the machine. 
The operator of any of these automatic machines should know 
not only how to care for the machine and tend it while in operation, 
but also how to sharpen and set his tools, how to measure and 
caliper accurately,and how to set and read a micrometer and 
vernier. 

Tools of the Shop and Pit 

Tools of the shop and pit may be classified as machine tools 
and hand tools. Some of the common machine tools have been 
indicated in the foregoing sections. These include, for the latne, 
a set of solid tools, and a set of Armstrong tools ; for the milling 
machine, cutters — plane, angle and forming — saws, T-slotters, in- 
serted tooth and fly cutters, parallel bars, angle plates, jacks, gear 
cutters, and hobbs ; for the drill press, wrenches, drifts, collets, 
drills, chucks, reamers, boring bars, jigs, bolts, clamps, vises, angle 
plates, parallel bars, Y-blocks, centers, tops ; for the grinder, grind- 
ing wheels, and magnetic chuck. 

The common hand tools of the shop include clamps, dogs, arbors, 
chisels, hack saws, files, scrapers, taps and tap wrenches, dies and 
die holders, hand reamers, hand files, breast drills, soldering cop- 
pers, blow torch, and fire pot. 

The common hand tools of a well-equipped tool pit include 
steel rule, hammer, center punch, scratch awl, dividers, screw 
driver, inside and outside calipers, inside and outside micrometers, 
center gauge, hermaphrodite calipers, combination set, protractor, 



282 Evansville Vocational Survey 

surface gauge, trammels, depth gauge, Vernier caliper, drill gauge, 
thread gauge, thread micrometers, test indicator, eye glass, and 
thickness gauge. The machine shop worker must know these tools 
by name and use, and should be experienced and skilled in manipu- 
lating them. 

Toolroom. In the toolroom the tools and cutters of the ma- 
chine shop are sharpened and repaired, and new tools and jigs 
are made as required. 

Many of the machines in use in this department arc in general 
similar to those of the machine shop, including the universal tool 
and cutter grinder, the planer, the bench lathe, the drill press, 
the milling machine and the screw cutting lathe. Special attach- 
ments are used on these machines adapted to the work of the tool- 
room . The universal tool and cutter grinder, for example, is 
similar in construction to the universal grinder of the machine shop, 
but a number of small special attachments are used in grinding 
special tools. In addition to the above machines, the toolroom 
equipment includes the shaper, and the tempering furnaces and 
forges described below. 

Shaper 

The shaper consists of column, ram, tool head, vise 1 , extension 
table, cross rail, stroke index, cross and vertical feed mechanism, 
and driving cone. The ram is supported in ways along the top 
of the column, and receives its motion from a stroke lever oper- 
ated by a cam within the column. At one end of the ram is 
attached the tool head, which performs the same work as the 
tool post of the lathe. In front of the column is a cross rail 
attached to vertical slides.' To this rail is bolted an extension 
table, and to this table a vise which holds the work. The cross 
rail can be adjusted vertically by hand, and the extension table 
supporting the vise can be adjusted horizontally, either by hand 
or by automatic feed. The tool head can be turned at any angle, 
as work requires. The stroke index is for the purpose of designat- 
ing the length of stroke of the ram, which can be adjusted for 
various lengths of work. 

The shaper is used in the toolroom for planing flat surfaces on 
work thai is too small for the planer. It is most used for work 
in jigs and for metal pattern work. By means of special attach- 
im tits, gears can he cut and a number of operations classed as 
milling machine operations can be done. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 283 

Shaping metal patterns is skilled work. The mechanic for this 
work should understand the construction of patterns in order to 
plane draft on such patterns as may require it. Much work on the 
shaper is tool making and the operator should have some of the 
tool maker's training. Skill in accurate measuring and calipering, 
and such a thorough knowledge of the machine as will enable 
the operator properly to set up work are essential. 

Tempering Furnaces and Forges 

Tempering is usually done in or near the toolroom, and near 
the grinding machines to which work is delivered. The equipment 
used in this work includes a hardening and tempering furnace for 
hardening tools ; a forge for forging tools ; a cyanide furnace for 
case hardening; and a pack hardening furnace. 

The hardening and tempering furnace is a steel oven lined 
with firebrick. It is mounted on four legs which elevate it about 
four feet from the floor. Two pipes of air and gas enter the sides 
of the oven, and when the mixture of air and gas is ignited and 
properly regulated, a very hot blast is given. Most of the work 
done in this furnace is tempering high-speed steel, which requires 
being brought to a very high temperature. 

The forge may be either a gas or a coal forge. The gas forge 
is similar in construction and operation to the furnace. The 
coal forge is an iron pan supported on legs, and arranged with 
an air blast pipe entering the bottom of the pan. By means of a 
strong air blast, a fire can be made hot enough to forge or weld 
steel. 

A cyanide furnace is a sheet metal drum, lined with firebrick, 
and piped for a gas blast, A crucible containing the cyanide 
of potassium salt is set inside the drum. The blast is turned on 
and the cyanide brought to a w T hite heat. The pins to be case 
hardened are brought up to red heat in a forge, and are then 
dipped into the cyanide in a metal bucket and held there a few 
minutes, after which they are removed and chilled in cold water. 
This makes a thin coating of hard steel on the surface. 

A pack hardening furnace is in construction similar to the 
tempering oven. In pack hardening the pins to be hardened are 
placed in an iron box and covered over with ground bone, or any 
substance containing carbon. A lid is put on the box, which is 
placed in the oven and brought to a yellow heat. For several 
l iours this temperature is retained until a layer of about one- 



284 Evansville Vocational Survey 

sixteenth of an inch of steel has been deposited on the pins. They 
are then removed and chilled in cold water. 

The toolroom blacksmith has charge of the tempering work. 
Bushings, reamers and special tools, which are made or repaired 
in the toolroom, are delivered to the tempering department to 
be annealed, hardened or tempered, as the case may be. The work 
is then returned to the toolroom for grinding and finishing. 

Another source of work for the tempering department is the 
engine product from the machine shop. Such work as the case 
hardening and pack hardening of piston pins, wrist pins, and 
cam wheels is done in this department, and the pieces are then 
delivered to the grinding machine for grinding. 

The toolroom blacksmith should be a man thoroughly trained 
in the handling of all grades of carbon and of high speed steel. 
He should know the different ingredients, and the particular char- 
acteristics of each grade of steel. This knowledge is very essen- 
tial in regulating temperatures properly, with reference to 
materials and to processes. He should understand thoroughly the 
principles and methods of case hardening, pack hardening, cya- 
nide dipping, and annealing. 

Inspection department. The tool equipment of the inspection 
department consists almost entirely of small hand tools used by 
the inspector. These include such tools as limit and snap gauges, 
inside and outside micrometers, thread micrometers, calipers, plug 
gauges, and test bars. A speed indicator is also commonly used 
by the inspector. 

The inspector measures, calipers and tests all the casting and 
small parts of the gasoline engine. Micrometers are used for 
calipering the size of screws, pins and shafts; plugs gauges and 
inside micrometers for calipering and measuring holes. 

A good inspector should be a first-class machinist. He must 
know the construction and operation of the engine, and must be 
accurate and trustworthy. His work is of extreme importance 
since he is responsible for the condition of the output. Troubles 
may easily, and do often arise between the machinists and the 
inspector due to favoritism. For this reason it is highly essential 
that the inspector be a man upon whose reports the company 
may depend. 

Other departments. Machines in use in the assembling depart- 
ment are bench grinders for rough work, and small bench lathes 
for machining small parts. The assembler must know the engine 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 285 

thoroughly as to timing and other mechanism. Aside from this 
the assembler requires comparatively little special training. 

In the testing room 43 men are employed ; in the pattern shop, 
8; in the paint shop, 27; and in the warehouse and shipping depart- 
ment, 16. The establishment employs four draftsmen and de- 
signers. 

Some of the work done in these departments, such as pattern 
making, drafting and designing, is highly skilled, but no special 
treatment of these lines of work as developed in this establish- 
ment is required, since the character of the work and the qualifi- 
cations and training required are in no important respect peculiar 
to the establishment or to the industry. Other work in these de- 
partments, such as that of the carpenters, and of the paint shop 
employees, has been sufficiently considered elsewhere. 



VIII. HOSPITALS AND NURSES 



1. General Findings 

Number of hospitals and nurses. Information relating to 
Evansville hospitals and nurses was gathered largely in confer- 
ences with local physicians, nurses and employers of nurses. There 
are four hospitals in Evansville, with staffs of physicians aggre- 
gating 57, and pupils in training 76. The number of nurses in 
the city is approximately 160. 

Standardization. The requirements for registration as a pro- 
fessional nurse are the state-wide requirements of three years of 
hospital training, and passage of the state examination, no re- 
quirements being imposed upon practical, unregistered nurses, 
whose training and experience vary from that of the compara- 
tively untrained nurse girl to that of the nurse whose practical 
training and experience places her nearly on a par with the 
graduate or registered nurse. 

Specialization. The work of nursing has broadened until there 
are now from 20 to 30 fairly distinct lines of activity. From the 
rather limited field of the hospital and the home, the nurse now 
goes out into the streets, and the tenements; into the shops and 
the factories, and into the schools. From the more or less simple 
personal services to the sick, her work has developed until it 
includes a large number of important duties, some of them dis- 
tinctly medical and sanitary, others educational and administra- 
tive, and others public and social in character. While special 
services are required of nurses in these several lines of work, in 
general it is true that the variety of service required in each line 
is so considerable that the nurse is efficient in proportion as she 
is broadly and thoroughly trained, and widely experienced. The 
nurse must be a competent cook, and practical nursing, as dis- 
tinguished from professional nursing, embraces on occasion, 
housekeeping and household management duties, along with care 
of young children, of the aged, and of the sick. Professionally, 
the nurse must be a general practitioner, rather than a specialist. 

Classes for nurses. The following eight classes of nurses are dis- 
tinguished for convenience in presenting the findings of the sur- 
vey: Registered nurse; graduate nurse, unregistered; pupil or 
undergraduate nurse; visiting or hour nurse; practical nurse; 

287 



288 Evansville Vocational Survey 

junior, untrained nurse, or nurse girl ; nurse maid ; and home nurse. 
As will appear from this classification, the Survey inquiry em- 
braced a range of services, some of which are not in the nature 
of professional nursing. It is clearly in unprofessional, or semi- 
professional, rather than professional lines, that the public schools 
can give helpful instructions. Preservation of health, care of chil- 
dren, and nursing in the home by members of the family are, 
therefore, included under nursing, as services to be regarded in 
organizing public school courses to meet the common needs of 
all children and of all families. The class of home nurses, and 
of nurse girls are accordingly distinguished as classes of nurses 
with reference to which school courses should be formulated, al- 
though obviously these classes do not represent distinct occupa- 
tional groups, but represent rather lines of service in the home. 

The state registered nurse is the one most respected and best 
qualified. She holds in the fullest degree the confidence of physi- 
cians and patrons. She is a graduate of a good hospital and 
holds the State Certificate for Nurses, indicating that her ability 
and qualifications as a nurse are satisfactory to the State Board 
of Examiners. The graduate nurse is one who has completed the 
training work in a hospital, but has not taken the state examina- 
tion for nurses. She may, therefore, not measure up to the state 
requirements. The undergraduate nurse is one who has had 
twelve months or more of training, but has for some reason 
left the hospital and either taken up private nursing, or has left 
the profession entirely. Such nurses are frequently known as 
practical nurses. Their reasons for discontinuing their hospital 
training are various, among which may be mentioned the neces- 
sity of earning money, dislike for some person in authority, dis- 
like for surgery, inability to sleep in the daytime, ill health, and 
long hours. Only eight undergraduates were enrolled in the 
registry, but as such nurses are not required to register, some 
may be practicing whose names were not secured. The practical 
nurse is the nurse who has had more or less practical experience, 
but little or no hospital training. The character of the other 
classes has been sufficiently indicated. 

Conditions of employment. The nurse, professional or prac- 
tical, works in an environment of persons and conditions which 
is constantly shifting as she moves from case to case, and from 
home to home. To each new environment she must quickly and 
completely adapt herself. In some eases she must take precau- 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 289 

tions against infection or contagion, for herself and for others. 
Her hours are necessarily extremely irregular, and may on occa- 
sion be excessive for a period. The demands upon her are more 
or less fortuitous and irregular, but under present conditions in 
Evansville, the competent nurse is kept as constantly employed 
as her strength will permit. 

Demand. So rapidly has the field of nursing extended, that 
there has not been in recent years an adequate number of qualified 
nurses available to meet the demand. Physicians, nurses and 
others say that not hundreds, but thousands of nurses are needed. 
Some of the agencies employing Evansville nurses are the four 
hospitals; the public health department of the city (8 nurses are 
now employed) ; private families in a city of approximately 
75,000 inhabitants, with an adjoining territory of 75,000 inhabi- 
tants ; one of the largest insane asylums of the state ; the Metro- 
politan Life Insurance Company ; public health associations, such 
as the King's Daughters; the public schools; physicians, in whose 
offices trained nurses are employed; and factories. The scope 
of the work is in fact unlimited, and the promise of useful em- 
ployment is assured to all who are personally qualified. 

It is generally conceded that the demand for nurses exceeds 
the present capacity for training. The need for competent nurses 
is obvious in many fields. In 1915, for example, according to the 
report made by the Babies' Milk Fund Association, two visiting 
nurses made 8,393 visits to 900 babies, and the results of their 
work were in evidence in the marked improvement of home envi- 
ronments and in the care of the babies. Two school nurses made 
2,918 visits in one school year. More nurses are needed to visit 
homes where the heads of the families need professional advice 
as to habits of life, cleanliness, cooking, selection of foods, care 
of the babies, and home nursing. It may be noted that the work 
of public nurses is made three-quarters ineffective because there 
is no law compelling compliance with suggestions made. Many 
serious cases requiring the services of a physician are entirely 
neglected. 

The Survey revealed complete unanimity of opinion among 
physicians and nurses regarding the need for more trained, prac- 
tical and junior nurses. 

Supply. Of the 76 pupils enrolled in the hospital training 
courses, only a few were, before entering upon their course, resi- 
dents of Evansville. In the past, the opportunities have not at- 

19—5543 



290 Evansville Vocational Survey 

tracted in sufficient numbers the best class of girls, and public 
school training along lines suitable for girls intending to become 
nurses has been inadequate. A course in hygiene, without physi- 
ology, has been given in the fourth and fifth grades, and in 
the high school, physiology has been an elective. The present 
course if taken in full is hardly adequate as a basis for hospital 
training, and it should be borne in mind that only a small 
percentage of the grade pupils enter the high school. Practical 
nurses are largely recruited from women, often well advanced in 
years, who have had some experience in home nursing and who 
are forced to seek economic independence. Some of the nurses 
practicing are middle-aged or elderly women, who began fifteen 
or twenty years ago when the number of families employing 
trained nurses was very few. 

Age of entrance. Hospitals do not admit pupils to training 
courses, under 18 years of age. Entering at this age the pupil 
completes her training course at the age of 21, which is the mini- 
mum age of state examination and registration. 

Qualifications. The nurses' training schools require that appli- 
cants shall have a high school diploma, although two hospitals 
will receive in training girls graduated from the eighth grade. 
Those who have the high school qualification progress more 
rapidly and are more efficient when the course is finished. The 
common complaint is that the applicants lack the foundation 
upon which to build in hospital training. This foundation must 
embrace some knowledge of dietetics, and of plain cooking, which 
is not taught in the hospital courses. 

Other factors, however, enter into the professional character 
of a nurse, such as for example, good manners, ability to converse 
with patients properly, ability to keep house in emergency, and 
appreciation of the importance of cleanliness, especially of the 
hands and clothing while waiting upon patients. 

Personal qualifications required in all nurses may be briefly 
indicated as embracing sound health, good hearing and eyesight, 
neatness and cleanliness in appearance and personal habits, a 
pleasant voice and manner, an even, cheerful disposition, tact, 
resourcefulness, good memory, judgment, self-confidence, and 
conscientiousness in carrying out orders. 

Deficit ncies. The common deficiencies of nurses are as various 
in character as are the demands made upon them in their profes- 
sional service, and are sufficiently indicated in the statement that 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 291 

many nurses do not measure up to the requirements of their pro- 
fession, as regards general education and refinement, ability to 
read and converse well, physical strength to stand the fatigues 
of their work, and foundation knowledge of physiology, hygiene, 
chemistry, anatomy, cooking, and dietetics. Extravagance, also, 
is alleged in some cases in the use of linen, lights, food, and 
supplies. 

Training. There are four private hospitals, three Protestant 
and one Catholic, in which the girls from Evansville and the adja- 
cent states receive training in both theoretical and practical 
nursing. 

.The principal subjects included in these courses are anatomy, 
physiology, bacteriology, hygiene, matera medica, dietetics, 
obstetrics, surgery, contagious diseases, diseases of children, and 
nursing ethics. 

The time required to complete the course is three years. It is 
usual to have a probation period of three months, after which, if 
the probationer is accepted, she enters into the full work of class 
and hospital training. 

Pupils are on duty twelve hours a day, doing regular hospital 
work. In a few cases some time is given during the day for recre- 
ation and study. From 75 to 90 per cent of those who enter upon 
training complete their course. 

It is required that applicants shall have completed the high 
school course, or at least the eighth grade, and in all cases those 
are preferred who have had at least one or two years of high 
school work. There is an increased effort being made each year 
to raise entrance requirements for applicants ; a systematic attempt 
is being made by the state nurses' association to induce pupils 
contemplating becoming nurses to finish their high school course. 

Instruction in the various subjects are given by physicians, 
specialists and the hospital superintendent. The practical work 
is done under the direction of the superintendent and her assis- 
tants. In each case it was stated that applicants under 18 years 
of age are not accepted, and those from twenty to twenty-five are 
given preference. Tests are given on classwork from time to time 
and a record is kept of the nurse. Final examinations are given 
by the State Board of Examiners for Nurses and when grades 
are satisfactory, certificates are recorded at the court house and 
diplomas issued. 



292 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Wages and hours. Table V gives the rates of wages paid differ- 
ent classes of nurses. The variation in rates is accounted for in 
part by the variation in qualifications of experience, training, 
and ability of the nurses, and in part by the varying character of 
the service required. The highest rates are paid for trained 
nurses serving patients having contagious diseases, the rate in 
smallpox cases being $50 per week. Nurses are paid from one- 
third to one-half rates in obstetrical cases while waiting to be 
called. Practical nurses charge varying rates, the most compe- 
tent of them being able to command nearly the same rate as 
graduates. 

Table V — Rates of Wages of Nurses 



Class of Nurse 


Rate of Wages 


Per 

Week. 

$ 


Per 
Day. 

$ 


Per 

Month. 

$ 


Per 

Call. 

t 




25-50 
15-50 




















5-10* 




Undergraduate in practice 


15-25 












.50 




6-18 










.75 






Nurse maid 




. . 25-30 





*Board, room and laundry service furnished. 

Nurses are often required to be ready for duty night and 
day, and they are in general largely dependent upon directions 
given by physicians in specific cases for recreation and rest 
periods. 

Can the schools co-operate? In respect to many of the qualities 
which have been specified as essential in the efficient nurse, obvi- 
ously home training is more important than any training which 
could be instituted in the public schools, but it is believed that 
the schools might aid, to a greater extent than they do, in develop- 
ing these personal habits and qualities which are essential not 
only for good nursing, but also in general for right living. 

In certain districts of the city nurseries might be established, 
which might be made important factors for laboratory practice 
in home-making, as well as in nursing. 

It is significant of the need of more adequate instruction in 
the schools along the lines of personal hygiene, for example, that 
upon investigating the results of medical inspection of pupils, it 
was found that 162 children had been ordered to bathe, and 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 293 

5,461 to consult their family physicians. Only 326 cards were, 
however, returned, showing that in only 326 cases had the orders 
been obeyed. Parents positively refused in 1,017 cases to have 
children treated and 228 parents reported that they were too 
poor to employ doctors. It may be remarked that there is no law 
under which compulsion may be exercised in any of these cases 
and in many of the most serious cases needing the attention of a 
physician, no action has been taken under the suggestions which 
have been made. 

It was suggested by several persons interviewed that much 
could be done through the Parent-Teacher's Club in creating 
correct sentiment with regard to the spread of disease, in right 
teaching of boys and girls during the adolescent period, and in 
helping to carry out the school physician's orders. In this work 
a broad field is opened to the school nurse, as instructor and 
helper to teachers and parents. 

The importance of teaching cookery, dietetics, sanitation, 
physiology, and hygiene, and care of children in our schools was 
mentioned by nearly everyone interviewed. 

Work might, it would seem, be introduced into the grades, 
which would give a general knowledge to boys and girls regarding 
personal and household hygiene, home nursing, and care of chil- 
dren, and later in the high school along lines which would provide 
girls with the knowledge needed by the practical nurse, and the 
mother who must care for the physical welfare of herself and 
family. Such work would also be prevocational in character, 
for the girl intending to enter hospital training courses. 

A junior nursing course would probably attract, many girls. 
In stating their vocational preference, 47 girls enrolled in Grades 
IV to XII of the public schools, expressed the desire to become 
nurses. Organization of a junior nursing course might stimulate 
more girls to enter hospital training courses and so provide the 
needed nurses with better educational qualifications. Such a 
course would certainly help a girl who wished to become a practi- 
cal nurse, and might provide her with an immediate vocation. 

The junior nurse course would correlate at least in part with 
the home-making and domestic science courses. For advanced 
pupils, practice training in giving baths, in making beds, in keep- 
ing rooms clean, in sterilizing instruments, in dressing wounds, in 
preparing nourishment, in telling stories, in teaching games, and 



294 Evansville Vocational Survey 

in other services could be obtained in the day nurseries by giving 
assistance to the school nurses and to the kindergarten teachers. 

Practical cooking and dietetics are not taught in the hospitals 
and inasmuch as it was stated repeatedly that nurses in general 
were deficient in the art of cooking and serving palatable and 
appetizing food, it would seem that evening classes for those in 
training would be helpful. 

Much that the nurse should know along lines indicated in the 
following list, the schools should teach: 

1. Use of the common antiseptics, such as carbolic acid, lye, 

formaldehyde, salt, permanganate of potash, bychloride 
of mercury, and iodine. 

2. Elementary bacteriology. 

3. Personal hygiene. 

4. Physiology. 

5. Sanitation. 

6. Dietetics. 

7. Plain cooking. 

8. Care of children, including bathing infants ; washing eyes, 

ears, and throat ; giving hot and cold compresses ; bed- 
making and care of bed; carrying the infant; taking 
temperature, pulse, and respiration; preparing artificial 
foods; feeding; care of bottles and nipples; regulation 
of sleeping periods; ventilation of rooms; testing blood 
and urine; and teaching use of tooth brush, and habits 
of general cleanliness. 

9. Nurses' ethics. 

10. Courtesies of the sick room — quietness, avoidance of haste, 
modulation of voice, cheerfulness, and pleasant conversa- 
tion. 

Those consulted by the Survey agents urged that enough 
physiology, hygiene, anatomy, and elementary science, cooking 
and dietetics be taught in the seventh and eighth grades to give 
girls who are contemplating nursing as a profession some realiza- 
tion of the nature of their chosen vocation, and a better founda- 
tion for their further preparation. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 295 

2. Occupational Analyses 

Superintendent. She has the management of the hospital and 
nurses' home, buying and replenishing all supplies. She exercises 
general supervision over all the nurses, arranging time for night, 
special and office duty and vacations. All reports from patients 
to the doctors are given by her. She gives part of the instruction 
to the pupil nurses, usually in practical nursing. Her duties also 
include personal interviews with applicants and deciding upon 
their fitness for admission, and care for nurses when they are ill. 
Although entirely competent as a nurse, she is somewhat removed 
from professional service, and is largely occupied with adminis- 
trative duties, and with the general instruction of nurses. 

Graduate nurse, registered. The registered nurse has fulfilled 
all the requirements of training and examination, for entrance 
upon her profession, and she is, therefore, presumably competent 
to undertake any line of nursing service in the hospital, the physi- 
cian 's or surgeon's office, the home, the school, or the community. 
She may work under a schedule of regular hours in hospital, 
office, public or social service, or she may go on cases where no 
regular schedule of hours or service can be assured. 

In the hospital, registered graduates are under the direction 
of the superintendent, and usually have charge of the operating 
room, offices, or surgical floor. As occasion arises she assists the 
physician or surgeon in operations and treatments, and upon her 
rests the responsibility largely for preventing the spread of 
contagious diseases. The nursing staff in the hospital is also respon- 
sible for organizing and administering the various services 
connected with the care of the sick in the most efficient and eco- 
nomical manner possible. 

Whether in the hospital or the home, the nurse is responsible 
for the personal care of the sick person. She provides the right 
mental and physical environment for the patient, carries out the 
physician's instructions regarding diet, medicine, and special 
treatment, observes all important developments in the condition 
of the patient, and notifies the physician, and where consulta- 
tion is impossible, administers the proper medical measures as 
necessity arises. 

In some branches of work the nurse is employed mainly in 
anticipating illness by identifying the early signs of trouble, in 
investigating insanitary conditions, and teaching people how to 



296 Evansville Vocational Survey 

prevent ill health. In such work the nurse is expected to be fa- 
miliar with, and to co-operate with all the other agencies which 
are working toward the relief of suffering and the prevention 
of disease. 

In many of the newer branches of the profession, the nurse 
works more or less independently, calling in the services of the 
medical expert only when necessary. Her duties are perhaps 
more Glistinctly social and educational than medicinal, and yet she 
must understand the nature and causes of disease, and must be 
expert in the observation and handling of sick people. She is in 
such cases more than an assistant to the physician, and her pro- 
fession is recognized as being entirely distinct from that of the 
medical practioner. 

Graduate nurse, unregistered. The graduate unregistered nurse 
has completed the regular training course, and is, therefore, a 
candidate for state examination and registration. The range and 
character of her duties, and of those of the registered nurse are 
precisely similar, but the unregistered nurse has not achieved full 
professional standing, and she therefore cannot in general com- 
mand to the same degree as the registered nurse the confidence 
of physicians and patrons. 

Undergraduate in training. Pupils in training are taken on 
probation for a period of three months. At the end of this period, 
if she has proven satisfactory and wishes to continue, the proba- 
tioner is given a uniform and becomes a pupil nurse. The pro- 
bationer goes the rounds with older nurses, and assists in making 
beds, giving baths, sterilizing instruments, dressing wounds, pre- 
paring nourishment, and arranging patients for their nourish- 
ment. She observes, and as one nurse expressed it "does as she is 
told." 

Pupil nurses are under the direction of the graduate nurses 
and the superintendent. Their occupation includes taking tem- 
perature, pulse, and respiration ; giving baths of all kinds, giving 
enemas and douches ; using the catheter ; bladder irrigation ; lav- 
ages ; dressing wounds ; giving hypodermic injections ; preparing 
special diets and nourishment ; giving medicine ; keeping records 
of each act performed for a patient; making urine tests; exam- 
ining stomach contents ; staining specimens, and in case of opera- 
tions, preparing the field of operation, and assisting in the 
operations. Each pupil has about four months in the operating 
room. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 297 

Visiting nurse. The visiting nurse is generally a social welfare 
or public health nurse who visits the patient as often as she is 
needed. In Evansville eight such nurses are employed. The 
nurse calls in the morning to make the patient's bed, or to give 
her a bath, or for duty which will give the patient ease and com- 
fort. The work of such nurses in Evansville overlaps, causing 
the neglect of some deserving and needy persons, while other 
patients are given more attention than is necessary. A public 
health association would improve this condition. Two of these 
visiting or welfare nurses are engaged by the Baby Milk Fund, 
one by the King's Daughters of the city, one by the Board of 
Health and Township Trustees, three by the School Board of 
the city, and two by the Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. to take 
care of their industrial policyholders. There is a demand for 
visiting nurses who are not public health nurses, to serve people 
needing occasional assistance. 

Undergraduate nurse in practice. The undergraduate nurse in 
practice performs so far as she is competent, the services of a regis- 
tered or graduate nurse. She has commonly completed at least 
12 months of hospital training and in the course of time she may 
acquire in practice a degree of competency equal to that given 
by the full regular three years' hospital training course. The 
earnings of the undergraduate in practice exceed those of the 
undergraduate in training, but the undergraduate in practice can- 
not expect for a considerable period of years varying with the 
natural capacity of the individual, if ever, to earn a wage 
equal to that of the registered or unregistered graduate. In 
service, moreover, her duties are in many cases less strictly pro- 
fessional, and may embrace housekeeping and household manage- 
ment, and general care of children. She may be intrusted 
with the care of chronic invalids, and with cases which do not 
require strictly professional nursing. 

Practical nurse. The practical nurse is most often called by 
the family, but is sometimes recommended by the physician, when 
the case is one which does not demand the skill of a trained nurse, 
and where it is necessary to consider expense. Her initial nursing 
experience may have been acquired in her own home, and she 
acquires in practical nursing further experience and competency 
in varying degrees according to natural aptitude and ability. 

Practical nurses frequently are expected to do some of the 
housework, and to take care of children, and they are, in fact, 



298 Evansville Vocational Survey 

sometimes employed because good nurse maids are not available 
The work expected of the practical nurse varies with the capa- 
bility of the individual. In some cases she assumes full control 
of the household, in addition to caring for the patient. She is 
expected to keep the room occupied by the patient clean, prepare 
and serve meals, and in some cases do the laundry work. Such 
nurses are considered less extravagant in their habits than the 
graduate nurses, whose hospital training in some cases seems to 
make them thoughtless of expense. 

The more experienced practical nurse takes any case which 
the graduate could handle, except surgery cases, but usually the 
practical nurse is engaged when it is a case of caring for elderly 
people and children. She acts entirely under the doctor's orders 
and often it is necessary for the physician to perform duties which 
in other cases are assumed by the trained nurse. In general her 
service is semi-professional, and the range of her activities is 
exceedingly wide. 

The deficiency most frequently designated for the practical 
nurse was insufficient knowledge of antiseptic cleanliness, and 
in general it may be stated that lack of hospital training is a 
serious handicap. 

Nurse maid. The nurse maid is a special nurse for children 
from the age of 12 hours to 2 years. She has had eight months 
or more training in the Albany school, or in a similar school. 
Her wages while in training are $5 per month, and while on 
duty in the home, from $25 to $30 per month. Experience, per- 
sonality, and the number of children under her care are factors 
determining her wage. The age requirement is the same as for 
trained nurses. The trained nurse maid should know how to bathe 
the baby ; how to carry the baby ; how to change the baby 's 
clothes; how to wash the baby's clothes; how to detect indiges- 
tion; how to feed the baby; what kinds of food to give and the 
quantity; how to care for the baby's bottles and nipples; to 
keep all vessels clean; and how to care for the bed. She should 
speak correctly and know how to teach simple rhymes, songs 
and games for amusement. 

Junior nurse or nurse girl. The junior nurse is a care taker of 
children rather than a nurse. She cares for the children during 
the absence of parents, and frequently prepares the children for 
bed and dresses them in the morning. In some cases she is re- 
quired to bathe, feed and entertain the children. 



SUMMAKY OF FINDINGS AS TO INDUSTRIES 299 

Home nurse. The home nurse is the mother, sister, housekeeper, 
or other person in the home, who cares for the family cases. 
Inquiry regarding the amount and character of sickness in the home 
was made through the Medical School Inspectors and persons in 
charge of the Baby Milk Fund. General statements were made 
asserting a deplorable ignorance on the part of home makers 
regarding maternity, the care of children, proper feeding, whole- 
some cooking, and the necessity of precaution in cases of contagious 
disease. One physician stated that there are 250 children in the 
city who should be in open air schools, and attributed this condition 
to insufficient feeding. 



IX. LAUNDRIES 



1. General Findings 

Importance of the industry. In the six power laundries, ap- 
proximately 310 women and girl workers are employed. The 
Survey was able to make an individual study of only a very small 
percentage of these workers, but these were typical of the entire 
working force. 

Conditions of employment. The laundry industry requires 
buildings with: (1) Stability of construction which will bear the 
weight and vibration of high-power machinery; (2) ventilation 
which w r ill carry off excess humidity and heat, and feed in suffi- 
cient fresh air to keep the room in a comfrotable and healthful 
condition for the workers; (3) floors so constructed that water 
will drain off readily; and (4) natural light, which is essential 
to acceptable and uniform production. 

Most of the laundries have fairly modern buildings in which 
there are no basements. The heavier washing and flat-iron ma- 
chines are placed on the first floor, thus insuring stability. Large 
windows furnish adequate natural light and some ventilation. 
The floors are well drained by gutters under the wash-machines 
which carry off the water. 

Forced ventilation is the only adequate plan as there 
is so much hot vapor coming from w r ashing and flat-ironing ma- 
chines. Unfortunately the majority of workrooms are not so 
ventilated, exhaust fans and windows being used instead. In 
cooler weather girls sometimes suffer from frequent colds, not 
so much because of the heat in the workroom, as because they 
go out into the cold air overheated, in moist clothing instead of 
taking time to change their clothing. 

Laundry men are recognizing the importance of proper build- 
ings, space, light and ventilation, as is shown by the newer type 
of laundry buildings which is replacing the old. Modern laundry 
buildings equipped with modern laundry machinery insure better 
sanitary conditions, greater economy of human energy, and a more 
satisfactory product which the laundry men hope to make so good 
and so cheap that no household can afford to have the washing 
done in any other way. 

Although conditions of laundry work affecting the health of 
workers vary with the character of the building, light and ven- 
tilation, there are other important factors inherent in the industry 

301 



302 Evansville Vocational Survey 

itself. These are: (1) The handling- of soiled and infected cloth- 
ing; (2) back strain, which comes from operating the treadle of 
heavy machines and lifting out wet clothing; (3) overheating 
of the hands in ironing; (4) disease from hand starching; (5) 
risk from indiscriminate use of chemicals; and (6) danger from 
unguarded machinery. 

The lister and the marker are practically the only workers 
who come in contact with the soiled clothes to any extent. Cloth- 
ing that is unusually soiled, or that is, for any reason, suspected 
of being insanitary, is put into the machine without being marked 
and listed at all. By taking such precautions as bandaging all 
skin abrasions, washing the hands thoroughly before eating and 
changing all clothing at the end of the day, the danger of infec- 
tion would be reduced to a minimum. 

All the press machines are operated by a treadle. In the 
newer machines the power is supplied by compressed air, and 
only a few pounds of pressure on the treadle are necessary. As 
a matter of fact, girls frequently insist on pushing the treadle 
down with a kick, which is as bad for the machines as for the 
operator. The use of the treadle in ironing, and the extra pressure 
which the hand ironer exerts by throwing her weight on the iron 
add to back strain which comes from continuous standing. Muscu- 
lar strain experienced by the girls in the fiat-ironing department 
passes after the first few days as the muscles become accustomed to 
this work. 

There are feAV bad conditions inherent in the industry which 
cannot be overcome by good buildings, proper ventilation, ade- 
quate mechanical appliances and good management. The criticism 
to which laundry work has been subjected in past years can, 
therefore, be lived down as laundry men come to realize the value 
of healthful working conditions. 

Hours of work. The regular working time is ten hours daily, 
with a short Saturday of five hours, or fifty-five hours per week, 
There is little variation from season to season ; but there is neces- 
sarily some more or less regular variation from day to day during 
the week. The hours of work are from 7 a. m. to 6 p. m., with 
an hour at noon. Work for listers and sorters is slack during the 
early hours Monday morning, till delivery men begin to return 
with the laundry collected. Starchers and ironers begin still 
later in the day after some clothing has been washed and made 
ready for their department. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 303 

Wages. The inexperienced beginners are usually placed at 
machine ironing, since the demands on their efficiency here are 
far less than on the hand ironers, and they can commonly earn 
at this work less than $5 a week. In the course of two or three 
years they command about $6. 

Departmental organization. The power laundry is organized 
in four main divisions, i. e., (1) the office, (2) the engine-room, 
(3) the laundry proper, and (4) the delivery division. In the 
office the amounts due on each list are computed, and the book- 
keeping incident to the business of the industry is done. The 
engine-room, as its name implies, is where the power is gener- 
ated. Some laundries buy their power from outside, and so have 
no such division. The laundry proper is made up of several 
departments, including the listing, marking and sorting depart- 
ment, the machine and hand-washing department, the starching 
department and the flat-ironing, machine and hand-ironing de- 
partments. 

Selection of workers. New workers are employed after a brief 
interview with the foreman. Before taking in workers from other 
laundries it is customary to confer with the previous employer. 

Practically all workers are taken on trial and tried out. The 
job in which a worker is placed depends upon her age, strength 
and experience. 

Laundrymen do not like to take on very young girls, and, 
in fact, they do not want to employ girls under 18 years of age. 
Girls under 18 are not strong enough to do heavy work in the 
better-paid lines of washing and hand-ironing; nor have they 
the strength to enable them to work steadily even at the sim- 
pler employments of machine-ironing and starching. 

Middle-aged women who have had some home experience in laun- 
dry work, and untrained girls who have left school at an early age, 
largely constitute the working force of the laundries. Young 
women who have given any time to vocational preparation, and 
who find any more attractive fields open to them, do not enter 
the laundries. 

Specialization. There are three general types of workers in 
a laundry: (1) Young girls who go into the flat-ironing and 
machine collar-ironing department; (2) those who enter the list- 
ing, marking and sorting department; and (3) the older workers 
who go into hand-ironing. The workers tend to gravitate into 
certain occupations where they remain permanently, the inter- 



304 Evansville Vocational Survey 

change of workers between occupations being reduced to a mini- 
mum. 

Promotion. It is reported that many girls employed in the 
flat-ironing department drop out the first week, largely because 
they find the work monotonous and because of the soreness result- 
ing from the use of muscles unaccustomed to such vigorous exer- 
cise. This is the department in which the greater number of 
laundry workers are tried out; hence, promotions to the machine 
collar-ironing are frequent and many. Older women are taken 
in as hand- washers and machine ironers, because they bring to 
the work some experience which they have gained in their own 
homes. The young girls who go into the listing, marking and 
sorting department are, as a rule, the better educated, more intel- 
ligent workers. There is practically no promotion for these work- 
ers except to the office, and this is too unusual to be typical. 

As may be inferred from the description of the requirements 
of the various occupations, a change from the machine collar- 
ironing to the other machine-ironing department brings a marked 
change in work, for which previous employment has contributed 
little preparation. Some training is necessary at this point if 
inexperienced workers are to become good operators. 

Promotion from machine-ironing and hand-ironing is very 
infrequent, though workers employed at hand finishing in the 
machine-ironing department may be promoted to the hand-ironing 
department. Hand-ironing is much more difficult and requires 
considerable experience which even the hand finisher from the 
machine-ironing department has to work months to acquire. 

Examination of the demands made on hand-ironers as com- 
pared with those on machine-ironers shows that much more is 
demanded of the hand workers than of the machine worker. It 
would seem, therefore, that the most desirable positions toward 
which a girl may hope to be promoted are those of head worker 
of a crew or department, and of special worker of the plant — 
positions which demand a general knowledge of laundry work, 
reliability and judgment. These positions carry with them suffi- 
cient responsibility to make them quite desirable to workers who 
care for executive positions. 

Laundrymen, in common with other employers, complain of 
carelessness, inaccuracy and irresponsibility on the part of em- 
ployees, and of a lack of initiative, mental alertness and ambition, 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 305 

which conditions any scheme of promotion, whether planned defi- 
nitely or arranged incidentally. 

Can the schools co-operate? Most of the work is performed 
by women, and much of it is hard manual labor, although some 
knowledge and skill is required in some of the operations, which 
no one has yet learned to describe. The chances of promotion in 
the business above the position of the skilled pieceworker are 
very few, and the wages even in the best positions do not provide 
an inducement sufficient to encourage many workers to make 
any special effort outside the laundry to obtain additional knowl- 
edge about the business. 

It is evident from the Survey returns, however, that there are 
some things to be taught about laundry work which would be 
helpful to the worker in steam laundries, and to the business. 
It was pointed out that information, for example, as to the best 
way of treating different textiles and fabrics in the laundry, and 
the practical chemistry involved in the handling of waters, soaps, 
bleaches, stains and adulterations in the cloth would be useful 
for employers and for many of the employees. A course covering 
this ground could be given in the laundry by an instructor versed 
in chemistry and textiles. Such a course has, in fact, been organ- 
ized, enrolling eighteen men employed in the laundries. 

2. Occupational Analyses 

Listers, markers, sorters, checkers, and bundlers. The girls 
in this department working as a crew, receive, list and mark soiled 
clothes ready to be laundered, and sort and assemble laundered 
clothing into their original bundles for delivery. The division 
of work varies somewhat in different laundries, but is done, in 
the main, in the following way. 

The lister opens the bundle brought in by the delivery boy 
and lists the number and kind of articles in it on different colored 
printed blanks used to indicate different classes of work — white 
for general, yellow for rough dry, blue or red for hotel and 
restaurant work. In some laundries an inspector verifies this list. 

This bundle with the list is then passed on to the marker, who 
sees that every article is marked with the proper symbols. She 
marks wearing apparel by hand with pen and indelible ink, and 
flat work on a marking machine resembling an adding machine. 
Handkerchiefs and napkins may be placed in a marked net bag. 
When she has marked all the pieces with the individual mark, she 

20—5543 



306 Evansville Vocational Survey 

throws the garments into the bundles according to the classifica- 
tion on the list, and turns the completed list into the office to have 
prices inserted and costs computed. 

The sorter assembles the different articles, when they have 
been laundered, according to the original lists which are placed 
in alphabetical order in large pigeonholes as soon as they are 
received from the office. 

A checker goes over the list to be sure that all pieces are assem- 
bled, and, finally, the bundle girl ties them up, with the list on 
the outside, ready for delivery. 

The same general requirements apply to all of these employ- 
ments. Girls in this department must know how to read, write 
and count. They must know the general marking system in use, 
be able to recognize the symbols and place each article quickly 
where it belongs. The work can be learned in a few weeks by 
girls having the necessary qualifications. 

Washers. The machine washer, usually a man, loads into the 
washing-machine the proper amount of clothing of similar kind, 
color and degree of cleanliness, and puts it through the washing 
and rinsing processes — usually five in number, though very dirty 
clothing may have to undergo additional cleansing processes. For 
each of these processes he measures the water — usually by means 
of an automatic gauge, which is set each time for the standard 
amount of water — drains out each bath and prepares the next 
bath. He measures the soap, regulates the temperature of the 
water, determines the right amount of steam to be used for the 
particular type of clothing he is washing, and measures the bleach 
and bluing. He also starts and stops the machine, removes the 
washed clothes and places them in a conveyor. For each process 
the standard formula worked out in the laundry is used, and, 
although washers, as a rule, do not understand the chemical proc- 
esses involved, they must follow each formula accurately. One 
washer may attend four or more of these machines. 

The washer must know the amount of water, soap, steam, 
bleach and bluing to be used for each type of wash he handles; 
when to use alkali soap and when neutral soap; must add soap 
to the wash when the suds die down, and know to what extent 
steam should be reduced, and the boiling time increased for badly 
soiled clothing. It is also important for him to know when to 
avoid the use of bleach and of bluing fluids. Although he works 
according to formula he must be accurate in measurements, as 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 307 

a frequent complaint is that expensive soap and chemicals are 
wasted, or that too free use of them injures the clothes. 

He must have enough knowledge of the machine to use the 
gauge, start and stop it and detect any irregularity in the mech- 
anism which may injure the machine or its contents. Ability to 
make simple adjustments on the machinery is desirable, and some- 
times required, though a skilled mechanic employed to take care 
of all machinery in the plant may relieve the washer of this 
responsibility. 

It requires from six months' to two years' experience to become 
a good washer, the length of time depending on the laundry and 
the ability and interest of the employee. Workers begin, as a 
rule, with one type of wash, usually the hotel work, and take 
up gradually other types of washing, as ability and experience 
warrant. 

Extractors. Extracting is taking surplus water out of the cloth- 
ing after the washing is completed. This is done in a machine 
consisting of an upright, perforated cylinder which revolves inside 
a solid case that catches and drains off the water as it is taken 
from the clothing. The extractor boy takes the dripping clothes 
from the conveyors as they come from the wash and packs them 
evenly in the extractor. He closes down the lid, presses a foot 
lever and starts the cylinder containing the clothing, which 
revolves with such speed that the water is driven out through the 
perforations by centrifugal force. He times each machineful, 
as each kind of clothing requires a different time, according to 
the thickness of the material and the degree of dryness desired 
in preparation for the next process. 

The extractor boy must know the amount of wet wash that 
can be put into the extractor each time, and he must know how 
to pack it so that the water will be removed without injuring the 
garments. He must know how to time and watch his machine 
and when to avoid touching it, although a safety guard in use 
in most laundries practically eliminates the possibility of touching 
the dangerous parts when the machine is in motion. He should 
also have some knowledge of machinery in order to know when 
his machine is running properly. 

Tumblers. The extractor boy frequently operates the tumbler, 
a perforated cylinder, into which flat work that has become tight- 
ly packed in the washing is shaken or tumbled about until it 
has become separated. This process precedes the flat-ironing, 



308 Evansville Vocational Survey 

and for this reason is sometimes done by one of the flat-ironing 
crew. The person who operates the tumbler loads into it a given 
amount of wet- wash, closes the cylinder, turns on the power, 
usually with a foot lever, times or watches the process, stops 
the machine when the process is finished, unloads it and sorts the 
contents. 

Rough-dry work is shaken out in the same way, but the 
tumbler is inclosed in a cylinder into which sufficient heat is 
turned to dry the clothes. The extractor boy takes care of from 
two to five machines, times each one and remembers what each 
contains, so as to secure the right degree of dryness for each lot. 
The hardest part of the work is lifting the dripping garments 
into the machine, especially such large pieces as sheets, bed- 
spreads and quilts, for which considerable physical strength is 
required. 

Starchers. There are three different grades of starching, deter- 
mined by the kind, amount and thickness of the starch to be 
used, and the type of garment and fabric. These are designated 
as light, medium and heavy. Fine fabrics and garments which 
require varying amounts and kinds of starch are done by hand; 
collars and cuffs and shirts, for which a uniform amount and 
kind of starch is used, are, as a rule, done by a starching machine. 

For this work girls usually work in crews, each one doing a 
special part of the work. The head starcher is the all-round 
worker of the crew, and, as a rule, works with the girls she 
directs ; hence her work is typical of the occupation. She makes 
the starch according to the formulas furnished by the laundry, 
measures all the ingredients and looks after the cooking. She 
dips the garments requiring light starch into the thin starch and 
wrings them out, usually by hand, without rubbing the garment. 
She rubs in the medium starch by grasping the garment in her 
hands and rubbing it back and forth over the base of the thumbs. 
In heavy starching by hand, she lays the garment on the table 
or starching board, and rubs the starch into the fabric with the 
ends of the fingers first on one side, and then on the other, and 
with a damp cloth rubs off the surplus starch. 

Articles to be starched by machine are immersed in hot starch 
and fed into a pair of rollers resembling a wringer. For this 
process the starcher puts an article into the starch and stirs 
i1 around until it is thoroughly wet, removes it, smooths it out 
and feeds it into the rollers, which squeeze the starch into the 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 309 

fabric somewhat as it is rubbed in by hand, though the process 
is not so satisfactory. The girl on the opposite side of the rollers 
takes the pieces and hangs them one by one on a moving line 
above the starching vessel as they are finished, or she puts a 
number into a receptacle, carries them to the drying-room and 
hangs them on the racks there. 

The starcher must know how to follow the starch formulas 
accurately, weigh and measure the ingredients and mix and cook 
the different kinds of starch. She must know what kind and 
what amount of starch to use for each type of work and be able 
to determine when clothes are sufficiently starched. If over- 
starched she must know how to remove the surplus. 

Flat-ironing, shakers, and folders. Flat work such as bed 
linen, towels, handkerchiefs and table linen is dried and ironed 
by a machine process called flat-ironing. The machines used 
consist of a succession of padded rolls revolving in concave chests 
heated by steam, or against steam-heated cylinders. The articles 
are run between these rollers, which contain enough heat, and 
furnish enough pressure, to dry and iron the cloth. This work is 
done by a crew of three or more workers known as shakers, 
feeders and folders. 

The shaker's work is to get the clothes ready for the feeder. 
She takes each piece separately from the box, straightens it and 
hangs it over a pole right side up, sorting pillow slips into one 
group, towels into another and so on. Two girls work together 
in shaking out large pieces like sheets, which they fold, hem 
together and hang over the pole with the hems always lying in 
the same direction. The work is not difficult, and can be learned 
in a few hours. 

The girls who start the clothes through the rolls are called 
feeders. They take a pole piled with clothes and hang it on a 
standard between themselves and the machine. Each girl takes 
up one piece and stretches it tight across the top as she lays it 
on the feeding apron, keeping it smooth by pulling it as it slips 
through her fingers. For large pieces like sheets, two girls work 
together. They draw the sheet tight across the top, push it out- 
ward on each side as it goes through, draw their hands across 
the bottom edge to remove wrinkles and keep the hem straight. 

This work demands considerable physical vigor, for it requires 
almost constant standing, lifting, reaching and stretching. 



310 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The girls who receive the pieces as they come through the 
flat-ironing machines and fold them ready for sorting and count- 
ing are called folders. Although this work requires less skill 
than feeding, the folder must inspect each piece as it comes 
through, and hold over for re-ironing any piece that needs it. 
The folders sort their work, putting the articles of the same kind 
into separate piles. 

This work is less taxing physically than the feeding, as the 
girls may sit at their work. In some laundries the feeders and 
folders work as a crew and change off work when they wish. 
This rests the girls and all are able to sit part of the time. The 
only skill required is neatness and speed. When workers have 
acquired the ability to keep the apron of the flat-ironing machine 
filled to full capacity all the time the speed of the worker becomes 
practically uniform. Folders work at about the same rate of 
speed. 

Some of the larger laundries have a small flat-ironing machine 
which is reserved for fine flat work, such as handkerchiefs, fine 
linen doilies and the like. These articles can be better ironed 
in the flat-ironing machine than by hand, provided they are not 
hurried through carelessly and pulled out of shape. It requires 
considerable care to keep large round doilies in perfect shape, 
especially when lace-trimmed. Heavy linen pieces must be put 
through several times to dry them perfectly. The purpose of 
this separate flat-ironing machine is to insure a high quality of 
work. 

The head girl, or forewoman, of this department must have 
the ability to take responsibility and manage girls. She must 
also know how to account for work and take care of any irreg- 
ularities, such as re-ironing pieces not satisfactorily done. 

Collar ironers. Machine ironing is divided into three general 
departments, each having a special type of machinery suited to 
the garments to be handled, i. e., collars, shirts and ladies' wear. 

Collar ironing involves a series of machine processes known 
as dampening, ironing, edge-dampening and ironing, seam damp- 
ening, folding or creasing, and molding, or shaping. This work 
is done by a crew, one worker to each process, except for dampen- 
ing, which is done by two girls. 

Dampening is an extremely simple process. The first girl 
feeds the collars into the machine as fast as she can handle them. 
These collars pass between dampened padded rolls, which make 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 311 

the collars damp ready for ironing. The second girl receives them 
as they come from the opposite side of the machine, puts them 
in straight and even, piles them into a press box and fastens the lid 
down with a hand press. They are left in this box for a half hour 
or more so that the dampness may be distributed evenly. 

A third girl takes the dampened collars from the press box 
and feeds them into the flat ironer, a pair of rollers heated and 
padded, taking care to keep the collar in shape. The operator 
sits most of the time for this work and is able to feed in as many 
as six collars side by side. The collars fall into a tray, and a 
fourth girl, usually the head worker, inspects them for spots, 
rough places and wrinkles. The defective collars are sponged and 
smoothed by hand, and re-ironed. 

The fifth operator lays the collars one by one on a feeding 
trough which carries them between heated irons where the edges 
are sprinkled and ironed at the same time. The sixth girl takes 
the collars from the tray of the edging machine and feeds them 
into the seam-dampener, where the seam is dampened before the 
collar is folded. She lays each collar separately on the feeding 
trough and allows it to fall into a tray at the other side of the 
machine. 

The seventh girl takes up the collar and folds it over a round 
mold the shape of the neck. The machine has four of these 
molds. By the time the operator has placed two collars on the 
forms the standard turns automatically and raises the collars 
against a heated press. The other two molds are exposed at the 
same time, and she fills them while the first two are being pressed. 
The eighth girl then places the collar on a similar round mold, 
and by means of a crank runs a hot iron over the top folded edge 
of the collar to smooth it. 

The last four operations may be done together on a new, 
recently invented machine which molds, finishes and rounds the 
collar in a single operation. The number and division of proc- 
esses may vary somewhat in different laundries. For hand-ironed 
collars these processes are all performed by one person. 

Workers for this department are usually promoted from the 
flat-ironing department. The collar-ironing crew, as a rule, is able 
to run all machines and frequently exchanges places. 

Shirt ironers. Shirt ironing employs two distinct types of work- 
ers, the machine operators and the hand finishers. The divisions 
of machine shirt-ironing comprise yoke, cuffs, neckband, bosom, 



312 Evansville Vocational Survey 

sleeve and body ironing. The subdivision into processes is deter- 
mined by the complexity of the garment to be ironed, and the 
various types of machines which the laundry may have. An up-to- 
date laundry with many modern power machines may have many 
subdivisions, while the small laundry having fewer machines will 
have fewer subdivisions. 

The yoke-presser fits the yoke of the shirt on a shaped padded 
press bed, and by means of a foot or pneumatic treadle raises 
the press bed and clamps it to the steam-heated metal plate 
which fits over it. She leaves the machine while she prepares 
another shirt, opens the machine with the treadle and repeats the 
operation. 

The cuff-presser lays the cuff straight on the press bed, placing 
it so that the machine will iron exactly to the edge of the cuff. 
She closes the press, opens it almost immediately, turns the cuff, 
closes the press again and leaves it while she puts the cuffs into 
two other machines. Then she opens the machine, removes the 
cuff and repeats the process. 

The neckband-presser fits the neckband on the shaped press 
bed so as to iron exactly to the edge of the band, closes the press, 
opens it almost immediately, turns the band on the press bed, 
inserts a thin metal plate under the buttonhole in the back and 
closes the press again. She removes the shirt from the press, 
and inserts a collar button to hold the band together. This worker 
operates two machines. 

The bosom-presser draws the shirt over the padded press bed, 
fastens the collar-band around a metal neckform at the upper 
end, puts a metal strip over the buttons and under the button- 
holes, clamps the bosom tight over the board and smoothes the 
bosom, brushing it with a damp cloth; then closes the press by 
means of a hand, or foot, lever, and leaves it while she prepares 
another shirt. She removes the clamp, buttons the shirt and, if 
the bosom is pleated, runs a bone instrument under each pleat to 
raise it, and removes the shirt from the board. 

The sleeve-ironer draws the sleeve over a stationary padded 
roll, which she raises up against a revolving heated cylinder, and 
continues the pressure by a foot treadle until the sleeve is suffi- 
ciently ironed. She reverses the process by means of a second 
treadle The girls iron each sleeve forward and back, changing 
the treadle at least two or three times. As it requires only a 
minute to iron a sleeve, the treadle action is continuous during 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 313 

the ironing, and is relieved only during the short, though fre- 
quent, intervals while she is adjusting another sleeve. 

Body-ironing is practically the same as sleeve-ironing, except 
that the rolls are larger and, as the garment requires more manip- 
ulation, the treadle action becomes even more nearly continuous, 
and the rest periods, while garments are being changed, less 
frequent. 

Machine shirt-ironing requires more physical strength than 
any other type of laundry work. The machines, with the excep- 
tion of some of the bosom presses, are operated by foot treadles, 
and require constant standing. In the newer laundries where 
these machines are equipped with pneumatic treadles, the foot 
pressure required is very little. 

In the ironing machines the padded roll is held against the 
ironing shoe, or cylinder, by the continued pressure which the 
operator throws on the treadle. In other words, the operator 
of the body-ironing machine gets the garment smooth by a hot 
iron pressure as great as, or greater than, that exerted by the 
hand ironer, who bears down on her hand iron for the same 
purpose ; only in the case of the machine operation the muscular 
exertion is transferred from the arms and shoulders to the legs 
and hips. On account of the frequent adjustment of the garment 
this operation requires a slow, but almost continuous, treadle 
action. Where the pneumatic treadle is used the roll is held 
against the iron shoe, or cylinder, by the compressed air, and, 
while the treadle action is as nearly continuous, it is by no means 
so exhausting. 

Hand finishing in this department is the ironing of the parts 
not satisfactorily finished by the machine. The hand finisher 
takes the shirt after it passes through "all the machine processes, 
inspects it, dampens and irons any rough spot and presses over 
the entire front. French cuffs, which are ironed unstarched, are 
ironed by the hand finisher. This is fairly light work, as the 
garment is already dried and does not need heavy pressure. Fold- 
ing the shirt ready to be delivered is frequently done by the hand 
finisher. She lays the shirt, front down, on a table, lays the 
pasteboard, doubles the shirt back over the pasteboard, turns 
under the edges and pins it to the shoulders. 

Ladies' wear is the third class of machine ironing. This work 
lacks the uniformity of shirt-ironing owing to the greater diver- 
sity in the shape of garments. Machines similar to those used 



314 Evansville Vocational Survey 

for body-ironing are used in this department. In some laundries 
a machine built especially for shirts is used. 

Hand ironers. The work in this department is divided into 
three classes: Ladies' wear (including the large variety of gar- 
ments), men's starched shirts and knitted underwear. The iron- 
ers of ladies' wear iron all garments not suited to machine work, 
such as ladies' dresses, w r aists, babies' clothes, men's silk and 
flannel shirts and neckties. Women who have gained some skill 
in ironing in their own homes are considered by some laundrymen 
very desirable workers for the hand-ironing department, as their 
judgment is good and their work more likely to be uniform. 

The head of this department may be an ironer herself, or she 
may be merely an inspector and sorter. Obviously, her duties 
and responsibilities would be quite different in the two cases. 
However, in either case she. must sort the clothes for the ironers 
according to their specialties, and inspect the work before it is 
sent out. All poorly ironed garments are returned to the ironer 
to be done over. 

Hand shirt-ironing of starched shirts requires more skill than 
any other work in the laundry. It used to be taught by an appren- 
tice system like other trades. With the coming of the steam 
presses hand work was almost driven out of the industry, but 
there has been considerable revival in its popularity. It is 
asserted tjiat the life of a hand-ironed shirt is about three times 
that of one ironed by machine. When the bosom or cuff is in 
the press no air can strike it while drying and consequently the 
heat cooks the fabric. Moreover, the shirt looks like new after 
each ironing, when done by hand, and is never pulled out of 
shape, as happens when put carelessly into the machine presses. 
In laundries maintaining hand shirt-ironing departments all full- 
dress and tuxedo shirts, tango shirts and fancy shirts of all kinds 
are ironed by hand. Shirts of the ordinary kinds are ironed by 
hand only at the request of the owner. This is the hardest kind 
of hand-ironing, as the irons used in most places are very heavy 
and it requires heavy pressure to give finish to shirts. Hand 
ironers must know how to keep the iron at the right temperature, 
as a cool iron will not take out the wrinkles or dry the cloth, 
and a hot iron may scorch. They must know when the garments 
are damp enough, and how to dampen dry spots if such should 
appear. It takes from six weeks to three months to become 
skilled. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 315 

The head ironer sees that lots are brought up and finished on 
time. He dampens all the shirts by hand, as the machine sprin- 
klers make shirts too wet. He dips the body of the shirt into a 
bucket of water, wrings it out and folds the shirt so that all 
starched parts lie on the wet part. The dampened shirts are 
piled in the press box, and the lid is fastened down by means 
of a handpress. In this press they are left from two to fifteen 
hours, so that the moisture may penetrate every part of the 
garment. The ironer then opens the press and apportions the 
work evenly. He rubs and wrings the starched parts in his hands 
to soften them. This is called breading. 

Knit underwear, which is ironed by hand, calls for a very 
simple grade of work. The worker lays the garment on the 
ironing table and pulls the iron around over the garment without 
putting on any pressure or lifting the iron. She then buttons and 
folds the garment. She irons hose the same way, or irons them 
by drawing the stocking over a heated metal form. She keeps 
the top edge rolled back of the fingers to protect them. Beyond 
knowing how to keep the garments in shape, and care in running 
the iron over every part of the garment, there are no special 
requirements and the work can be learned in a few hours. 

Foreman. The position of foreman or superintendent demands 
technical knowledge, executive ability and business experience. 
In the smaller concerns the superintendent is also the owner. 
In the larger concerns he is the most responsible employee in the 
establishment. He must know every piece of machinery in the 
plant, not only its method of operation, but also its productive 
value. He oversees the work at every point, and is usually the 
one who works out the formulas for making the starch and soap, 
as well as for the washing processes. He decides upon what 
softeners, bleaches, blues and starches to use. This involves some 
knowledge of chemistry and textiles, and of methods employed 
in textile factories. He must decide whether or not new time- 
saving methods are productive of as fine a quality of work, and 
whether they will be profitable if adopted. He must be able to 
figure the comparative costs of machine and hand work, and to 
fix rates for piecework. 



X. MACHINIST TRADE AND SPECIAL LINES OF 
METAL WORKING 



1. General Findings 

Importance of machine shop and metal products work. The 
work represented by the machinist trade, as a trade, and by the 
various lines of metal working in Evansville shops engaged in 
general machine shop repair, contract and constructive work, 
and in the production of metal products, is important from the 
point of view of vocational education, chiefly because of the 
great variety of services required of workers, and of conditions 
under which these services are rendered. 

These services embrace, in the aggregate, the machinists' 
trade, and the small shops in which various lines of metal working 
are carried on constitute, in the aggregate, a sort of practical 
training school for this trade. In some shops the variety of work 
is considerable, and the men individually are expected to under- 
take any line of work that may be in hand. Other shops devoted 
to one or more special lines of production provide training in these 
lines only, and the worker who would acquire a general training 
must move about from shop to shop. 

The Survey of these small shops develops the fact that the 
all-round machinist is not generally employed in the production 
of metal products. His field of employment is restricted largely 
to general repair and to contract work. Production of metal 
products is largely in the hands of workers who have severally 
acquired facility in the performance of some relatively simple 
service. 

The Survey covered six general machine shops, employing 115 
men, and five metal products shops, employing 560 men. It will 
be easily understood that the field of employment in Evansville 
for men trained in metal working is not restricted to these shops, 
but the shops surveyed undoubtedly represent fairly the charac- 
teristics of the machinists' trade, and of the metal-working em- 
ployments in Evansville. 

It may be noted that the metal products establishments repre- 
sent industries in which there is no local competition, either in 
the city or in the surrounding territory. The demand for their 
special products is strong, principally for consumption in the 

317 



318 Evansville Vocational Survey 

United States, but, also, to a considerable extent for the export 
trade. 

Product. The machine shops of Evansville undertake general 
machine repair work, and, in some cases, the construction of 
*new machines and engines. One shop is strictly a machine 
repair company, practically the only new work turned out being 
parts of machines made to replace old and worn parts. This 
company does, however, construct a few small water-feed pumps 
for steamboats. Another shop is engaged in manufacturing freight 
and passenger elevators, steam and hot-water heating apparatus, 
tobacco presses and tobacco trucks. During the dull season, to 
prevent laying-off employees, several side lines are carried on, 
including general machine repair work, general foundry work 
for outside concerns, pattern-making and woodworking for dif- 
ferent parts of the shop products. In other factories the lines 
of work include repairing, building and installing fire-escapes, 
iron fences, gates and grates; building and repairing gasoline, 
marine and tractor engines ; building motorboats ; repairing ma- 
rine steam engines and automobile work. The metal product 
specialties include castors, edge tools, hames, engine headlights 
and steam shovels. 

Standardization of product. The general machine shop has no 
standardized product. Its specialty is repair and job work, which 
is characteristically unstandardized. To the extent that a shop 
engages in the manufacture of such metal products as, for exam- 
ple, castors, it becomes a manufacturing plant, and its product 
in such cases may be completely standardized. 

Characteristics of metal tvorking shops. In number of em- 
ployees the range in the six machine shops surveyed was from 
5 to 44, and in the five metal products shops from 45 to 220. 
There are, however, in Evansville a number of machine shops 
which employ fewer than five employees. The equipment of the 
smaller shops is usually old and more or less inadequate, and 
production in the machine shops generally is characterized by 
a degree of efficiency somewhat below that which obtains in 
larger establishments manufacturing a standard product. Em- 
ployment is usually steady, and the conditions of work fairly good, 
union wages commonly being paid. 

Departmental organization and equipment vary according to 
size of establishment and character of work done. Several of 
the shops comprise foundries and forges operated in connection 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 



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320 Evansville Vocational Survey 

with the machine shop or manufacturing plant. The equipment 
of the individual shop embraces a more or less complete assort- 
ment of lathes, planers, shapers, punch-presses, thread-cutting 
machine, power hacksaws, drill-presses, ovens, furnaces, forges, 
welding outfits and drop-hammers, together with the necessary 
shop, foundry and blacksmithing tools. A detailed description 
of the modern equipment for foundry and machine work is giren 
in the section on the gas-engine industry. 

Specialization. Employees in these establishments are classi- 
fied into general occupational groups in Table VI, but it should 
be borne in mind that the classification shown in the table repre- 
sents employment at the time of the Survey, and that the men 
are not necessarily restricted to that general line of work in 
which they happened at that time to be- engaged. Specialization 
in so far as it obtains is characteristic of the larger shops, and of 
those engaged in the manufacture of special lines of standardized 
metal products. 

The varying degree of specialization in these shops can best 
be set forth in a brief account of two typical shops — one a gen- 
eral machine shop in which, since the work cannot be to any 
considerable degree specialized, workers must be thoroughly 
trained in every branch of their trade; and one a specialty metal 
product shop, in which, owing to extreme specialization, workers 
require comparatively little training. These two shops represent 
opposite extremes in specialization. 

A Typical Machine Shop 

The lines of work in this shop include general repairing 
machine-shop work, the repairing, building and installing of fire- 
escapes and structural ironwork for fences, gates and grates. 
The general machine shop repairing work includes repairing ma- 
chines of all kinds. Some automobile work is done along with 
repairing work on gasoline and tractor engines. The equipment 
of this shop includes four 14-inch by 6-foot lathes, one 24-inch 
by 20-foot lathe, one 20-foot planer, one 22-inch shaper, three 
large punch-presses used for shearing, punching and forming, 
two thread-cutting machines, two power hacksaws, one drill- 
press and one crane for lifting heavy parts to the large lathe 
and the planer. The plant embraces, besides the machine shop, 
a blacksmith shop and an oxy-acetylene welding department. In 
the blacksmith shop there are two forges, two drop-hammers and 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 321 

several small machines for bending and forming steel parts. In 
the oxy-acetylene department there is an open furnace for heat- 
ing to a red heat pieces that are to be welded. The oxy-acetylene 
welding outfit consists of a tank of oxygen, a tank of acetylene, 
and hose connections and burner tips used in the operation of 
welding. In this department broken parts of machinery are 
welded and occasionally broken cylinders of gas engines. 

The work carried on in this shop requires two distinct classes 
of mechanics. The machinists employed for the general repair 
work are well-trained mechanics, capable of performing any 
operation, as occasion arises in completing jobs of repair work. 
They must be skilled in machine operation, in benchwork, and 
in dismantling and assembling machinery. The second-class of 
mechanics are structural steel ironworkers. They must be capable 
of laying out work, of cutting, punching and assembling angle 
iron and flat material stock; and of doing construction work on 
fire-escapes, fences and other lines. This work requires special 
training and is not strictly general machine-shop work. 

A Typical Specialty Shop 

The establishment engaged in the manufacture of metal casters 
may be taken as a typical specialty shop. This establishment 
employs 25 men and 26 women, no boys or girls under 16 years 
of age being employed. Parts of cast-iron casters molded in the 
rough are bought from other establishments, since no foundry 
is operated. These parts, which are sometimes polished and 
plated in the establishment, are assembled into the finished 
caster. The bulk of the product is, however, pressed steel casters, 
having rollers either of wood or of metal. The wood rollers, of 
walnut, maple or lignum vitae, are purchased turned to shape. 
Steel rollers are pressed and assembled in the establishment. 
Caster stems and rivets are bought cut and milled to shape. 
Arrangements are being made, however, to install machinery for 
making these parts. The rolled steel used in making rollers, horns 
and sockets is purchased in large rolls and is fed into machines 
from reels. A steel caster roller consists of two shells, one having 
a smaller sectional diameter than the other. These shells are 
punched out, trimmed and clinched together by special machines. 
The horn or forked part of the caster is blanked and three holes 
— two of which are for the ends of the axle rivet of the roller, 
and the other for the stem — are punched under a punch-press at 

20—5543 



322 Evansville Vocational Sttrvey 

one operation. The piece is then bent to shape, after which it is 
ready for the cleaning department. Special machines are used 
also for blanking, bending and finishing the sockets, or metal 
linings of holes in which the caster stems are inserted. In the 
cleaning-room the parts are put into containers with sawdust or 
scraps of leather — used as absorbents to free the parts of oil — 
and finally are submerged in vats of boiling water containing 
borax. Rollers and horns are, in some cases, nickel plated and 
lacquered. Casters are sometimes made with screw plates, instead 
of stems, and sometimes with roller-bearing mounts, these latter 
being bought outside the establishment. In assembling, the horn 
is riveted to the stem and the roller is then mounted on its axle. 
Practically all of the work is done on automatic machines. Fac- 
tory conditions are pleasant as regards light, ventilation and 
general surroundings. The factory is, at present, operating day 
and night shifts of 9% hours. 

Labor supply. The workers in these shops are recruited princi- 
pally from the local supply of skilled and unskilled labor, al- 
though some workers have come in from other cities. The younger 
employees have entered the shops directly from the public schools, 
and whatever training in special operations they have needed has 
necessarily been given to them in the shop. In several of the 
establishments the demand for skilled workers is increasing. 

Qualification for efficiency. In machine shop work, efficiency 
depends upon general rather than upon specialized trade knowl- 
edge and skill, since the worker must shift frequently from one 
line of work to another. He should understand the properties and 
uses of different grades of iron and steel and of other metals; 
he should be entirely familiar with all metal-working tools and 
machines; be skilled in using the tools and in operating the ma- 
chines, maintaining proper feeds and speeds for different machine 
processes and materials. The machine -shop w r orker must utilize, 
on occasion, all of the technical knowledge and trade skill of the 
professional machinist, and he must constantly exercise ingenuity 
in his work. In the mechanical world he is a general practitioner 
rather than a specialist. * 

Shop training. The practical all-round training and experience 
of skilled workers in the machine shops is such as can be gained 
only on job work, and they are in fact, usually men who have 
had years of this varied experience. In it they have acquired 
facility in discovering ways and means of accomplishing difficult 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 323 

jobs or repair work with rather inadequate equipment. Some 
of the men are able to do foundry work, blacksmithing and 
machine work on any machine at hand. Few young men are em- 
ployed except as helpers, nearly all of the employees being shop- 
trained by experience either in Evansville or in other cities. It 
does not, of course, follow that this method of training is ade- 
quate, or that it is, from the point of view either of the men 
or the community, the most advantageous and economical method. 
On the contrary, it is undoubtedly true that the training of these 
men has been unsystematic and accidental, and that they would 
derive material advantage from systematic courses of instruction. 
Machine operating along special lines can best be learned in the 
shop. 

As the demand for such work as is done in contract machine 
shops is increasing, there is an increasing opportunity for younger 
men to enter these shops as apprentices. In several shops an 
apprenticeship system has been already established, and in them 
there is good opportunity for bright young men to learn the 
machinist trade, acquiring experience in its various branches 
under men competent to instruct them. Although the equipment 
of the smaller shops may be somewhat inferior, the opportunity 
to learn the machinist trade is very much better in them than 
it is in the larger plants. Not only is there a greater variety of 
work and better opportunities for instruction, but the younger 
employee is given much more freedom in the operation of ma- 
chines and in benchwork. 

One company has established a four-year apprenticeship sys- 
tem. Apprentices are taken in at the age of 16 years, and are 
paid at the rate of $1.00 a day for the first six months. For 
each succeeding six months they are raised at the rate of 50 
cents per w T eek. The work of an apprentice during his first year 
is that of chipping, filing and cleaning castings received from 
the foundry department, thus preparing them for machining in 
the hands of experienced workmen. He is instructed by the 
foreman in all the work that is required of him, and is given 
general instructions that prove beneficial to him during his second 
year of apprenticeship. The work of the apprentice in his second 
year is threading bolts on thread-cutting machines, drill-press 
work and assisting in work done on larger machines. The work 
of the third year is drill-press operating, and in some cases where 
the aptitude of the apprentice will permit, he is given shaper 



324 Evansville Vocational Survey 

work, lathe work and more advanced machine work. In his 
fourth year the apprentice is given boring-mill and bench work. 
During these four years of apprenticeship under instruction, given 
by the foreman, the apprentice becomes thoroughly acquainted 
with the work of the industry. He is under close supervision 
during his first year, and if he shows an aptitude for machine 
work he is engaged and advanced accordingly; if not, he is 
given to understand that he is not fitted for this line of work, 
and is asked to leave. 

Promotion for efficiency. For the competent machinist working 
in machine shops there is no established regular line of promotion. 
In the small shop there may be no opportunity for advancement, 
except by entering into partnership with the employer. The 
competent man may advance by moving to larger shops in which 
positions of responsibility are open, or he may establish himself 
independently. Promotion depends ultimately upon the acquire- 
ment of a fund of technical knowledge and trade skill. 

Wages. Organized labor of the machinist trade is found for 
the most part in the machine shops, and in these shops union 
wages prevail. The small shops pay wages as nigh as those paid 
in the larger establishments. 

Can the schools co-operate 1 It will be apparent from the fore- 
going account that the machinist must acquire much of his train- 
ing in the shop, so far, at least, as regards the special line of 
work upon which he may be engaged, but this training is neces- 
sarily restricted to the employments and interests of the individ- 
ual shop. In no case is the shop equipped and organized for the 
purpose of providing that systematic and progressive instruction 
which is fundamental in the machinist's trade. Machine shop 
practice, pattern making, sheet metal work, foundry practice and 
tool making provide adequate bases for the formulation of school 
courses, and it is certain that the growing demand for skilled 
labor in metal working shops would provide employment for 
boys taking such courses. 

The following statement by one employer may be quoted 
as indicating his disposition to co-operate with the schools: 

"I am heartily in sympathy with any form of vocational 
education that can be worked out for the benefit of the em- 
ployees. I think that the work of a vocational school is just 
what is needed for my employees. I believe that the night school 
is the most satisfactory arrangement that can be worked out, and 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 325 

I will be willing to co-operate with the school in any way possible 
to further its success. I will be willing to back my employees, 
to require regular attendance, and will be perfectly willing to 
allow them their carfare to and from the school." 

Vocational courses for the machinist's trade have been very 
generally formulated, and there is a great unanimity of opinion 
as to the disciplinary and vocational value of such courses. Many 
of the prime needs of the machinist are such as can be best 
provided for in systematic courses. In his work the machinist 
is constantly making mathematical calculations, working frac- 
tions, decimals, proportions, percentages and equations ; he works 
by formulas ; he must measure angles, areas and volumes ; extract 
roots; solve triangles and figure diameters and circumferences; 
he uses feed-gear ratios, taper computations, thread computations 
and thread measurements ; he must understand the mathematics of 
levers; pulleys and wheels; he must have skill in mechanical 
drawing and ability to work from blueprints. The machinist must 
know the properties of metals, and the proper feeds and speeds 
to be used in machining them. He must understand the prin- 
ciples of tempering, welding and forging. He must know the 
names and uses of a multitude of hand and machine tools. He 
must understand the principles of machine and engine construc- 
tion. All of this knowledge is fundamental and for advanced 
special courses. A fund of technical knowledge is available along 
any one of these lines, which has practical vocational value in 
special branches of work. 

In none of the shops is there any opposition to school training, 
and two of the larger shops have signified their willingness to 
co-operate with the schools in sending young men to evening 
school courses, and in taking boys who graduate from the voca- 
tional school. 

2. Occupational Analyses 

The machinist. The only trade or occupation which is charac- 
teristic of the machine shop is that of the professional machinist. 
This trade, which is represented by approximately 100 journey- 
men and apprentices in Evansville, comprehends (1) metal work- 
ing, and (2) machine construction. In metal working, rough 
castings, forgings, and stock are machined and tooled to specified 
dimensions of form, size and finish. Machine construction work 
includes making, dissembling, repairing, assembling, and erecting 
machines. 



326 Evansville Vocational Survey 

It will be clear that some metal working may be involved in 
machine construction and repair work, and that the machine con- 
structor, repairer, and erector must be skilled in machining and 
in hand metal working. Much metal working on the other hand 
is done by relatively unskilled workmen, who have learned to 
operate one or more special machines in industries producing 
metal specialty products. 

Although machine operation is an important part of the ma- 
chinist's trade, the machine operator, as an operator, is in no sense a 
machinist, and may not be even in the metal working industries 
in the way of acquiring through his work any sort of trade train- 
ing. Such operators are sometimes erroneously called "machin- 
ists," even when they have nothing to do with the repairing or 
adjusting of the machines. There is no justification whatever 
for this confusion of terms. In any metal working industry, 
practically no machinists are regularly employed, except such as 
are required, in these industries as in other machine industries 
for maintenance of equipment. 

In working rough castings, forgings and stock to required 
shapes and dimensions, the machinist must frequently exercise 
ingenuity to devise ways and means of performing various opera- 
tions. This work may be generally characterized as light or 
heavy according to its nature, both classes of work requiring in 
different lines varying degrees of skill. A worker trained in light 
work finds some difficulty in getting accustomed to heavy work, 
but it is much more difficult for the machinist accustomed to 
heavy work to acquire skill and facility in light work. 

Tool making and diesinking may be specified as lines of highly 
skilled metal working. The making of shop tools, such as jigs, 
boring bars, and templates requires less skill than does the making 
of fine hand tools and instruments of precision. Diesinking re- 
quries the exercise of skill in a high degree — on a par with that 
of the fine tool maker, although the work of the diesinker is 
entirely different from that of the tool maker. 

Tool grinding is recognized as a separate employment in some 
of the larger shops, in which all tools and drills are ground by a 
special hand, known as the grinder hand. His work consists in 
grinding all lathe, planer, slotter, and boring-mill tools and drills, 
and other tools used in the shop, to definite forms as set forth 
in a chart. He is not a machinist and he requires little skill. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 327 

Young machinists working in such shops cannot acquire skill in 
grinding tools, and are therefore seriously deficient in one line 
of trade skill. 

The machinist is not ordinarily subjected to great physical 
strains in his work, since where heavy lifting is required he 
usually has ample help. His work is varied, especially in job 
and repair shops, and practically all of it is of a character to 
stimulate the worker's interest. He works in all industries and 
his trade in general embraces the building up and maintenanee 
of the community's mechanical equipment. 

In much of the machinist's work ther« is more or less danger 
of injury from uncovered pulleys and belts, cranes, chains and 
air hoists, and open gears; in some of the work there is danger 
of infection from cast-iron dust; and in benchwork there is dan- 
ger of injury to the eyes from flying chips. 

Hours of labor vary somewhat, the railroad shops working 
from 9 to 10 hours a day, for six days in the week. The rate of 
wages for journeymen averages about 32 cents per hour. The 
period of maximum productivity for the machinist is from 25 to 
55 years of age. The trade is not seasonal and there is practically 
no fluctuation in employment. In the railroad shops the trade 
is completely organized, and when work is slack the men work 
short time. 

A detailed account of the machines and tools used by the 
machinist in his trade, and of the various operations which he 
must perform, has been given in the analyses of occupations in 
the Gas Engine Manufacturing industry. The several occupations 
which under the division of labor in this industry constitute 
separate employments, taken in the aggregate, present a detailed 
account of the various services required of the machinist on occa- 
sion. What differentiates the machinist from specialty men 
in the metal working industries is the requirement of general 
skill in all lines of metal working and machine and engine build- 
ing, and of general technical trade knowledge, embracing a wide 
range of subjects in which well defined, systematic courses of 
instruction have been worked out. It is, therefore, unnecessary 
to go into further detail as regards this trade, which perhaps 
most nearly of all mechanical employments approaches in char- 
acter the nature of a profession, and is, as are other professions, 
largely dependent upon systematic school training for the develop- 
ment of efficiency. 



XI. PLOW MANUFACTURING 



1. General Findings. 

Importance of the industry. Plow making is represented by 
four establishments in Evansville. They employ 14, 41, 59 and 
131 men respectively, making a total of 245 workers employed in 
the industry. Its vocational range is wide, embracing foundry 
and forge work, pattern making, machine shop work, woodwork- 
ing, and painting. These several vocational fields are generally 
covered in other sections of this Report. (See pp. 268 to 290, 333 
to 334, 271 to 285, 175 to 177, 196 to 197. 

Product. The plow works of Evansville are engaged in the 
manufacture of general lines of plows. The breaking plows are 
divided into two classes, walking and riding plows. All breaking 
plows run in sizes determined by the width in inches of the land 
which the plow takes, the sizes running from 10 to 18 inches. 
Walking breaking plows carry a single point. The several parts 
of this plow are the following: Two wooden handles, a beam of 
either wood or steel, a clip at the front end of the beam, so con- 
structed as to provide a means for lateral and vertical adjust- 
ment of the plow point; a moldboard, so constructed that it turns 
the soil almost completely over when the plow is in action ; 
and a saddle in the case of wood beam plows, or standard, in 
the case of steel beam plows — to which the land side plate, mold- 
board, and plow point are fastened. Each plow is provided also 
with a jointer, which is a small plow-like affair fastened to the 
beam of the plow to remove the surface of the soil next to the 
standing edge and turn it over into the bottom of the furrow. 
Some plows, usually riding plows, are provided with a rolling 
cutter, or coulter, a round steel plate with a knife-like edge which 
cuts the soil just ahead of the plow point. This tool is especially 
desirable in tough sod, or soil covered with cornstalks or other 
litter. A combination jointer and rolling cutter is now manufac- 
tured by these factories. The riding plow has all the distinguish- 
ing characteristics of the walking plow, with the exception of 
handles, but is mounted on wheels. The Evansville factories manu- 
facture both the single and the gang type of plow. Each gang 
plow carries two or more plow points. Different hitches are pro- 
vided for plows according as they are to be drawn by horses or by 
gasoline tractors. 

329 



330 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



While these concerns are engaged generally in the manufac- 
ture of walking and riding plows, one concern has specialized 
to a large degree in the manufacture of the two and three bottom 
tractor gang plow, and another in the manufacture of improved 
riding and walking cultivators. All manufacture a line of single 
and double shovel plows. 

Standardization of product. The product of these concerns is a 
staple standardized product, and is, moreover, structurally simple 
in character. 

Characteristics of the industry. The general character of the 
industry is indicated in Table VII, which classifies the workers 
by departments, and as skilled or unskilled. 



Table VII — Employees in Plow Works Classified by Department, 
and as Skilled or Unskilled 





Number of Employees 


Department 


Total 


Skilled 


Unskilled 


Total 


245 

14 
44 
51 
11 
22 
34 
17 
14 
23 
15 


194 

14 

24 
35 
11 
21 
34 
17 
14 
23 


51 


Pattern shop and drafting room 




Foundry 

Forge 

Machinist shop ,..•.. 


20 
16 


Fitting department 


1 


Grinding and polishing department . . 




Woodworking shop. . 




Paint shop 




Assembling department . 




Shipping department 


14 







Approximately one-fifth of the labor in the industry is unskilled, 
and of the labor classified as skilled, it is generally true that the 
degree of skill is such as can be acquired along special lines in 
the factory. For productive work, general technical knowledge 
and trade experience are not essential except in the case of a few 
employees. 

The slack season is short, coming the latter part of the summer 
months, and the worker in this industry needs entertain no fear 
that employment will be irregular. 

Specialization of processes. The industry is characteristically 
one largely dependent for efficiency and economy in production, 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 331 

upon specialization throughout the manufacturing processes, and 
since the product is simple, this specialization greatly reduces the 
requirement of skill on the part of the workers. The division of 
labor in the several factories is shown in Table VIII. 

Labor supply. The plow industry recruits its workers to a 
large extent from other iron industries of the city. Many, how- 
ever, come into these establishments as raw recruits, and are trained 
especially for some one operation. In view of the fact that the 
work does not require a high degree of skill, although special train- 
ing in most operations is necessary, the latter class of workers 
are soon able to render service equal to that of those who have 
been trained in other lines of the iron working industries. A few 
of the workers are recruited directly from the public schools. These 
enter the industry as helpers, and later are advanced to more 
responsible positions. Very few boys under sixteen years of age 
are employed, and not more than 8 in each 100 employees are 
between 16 and 21 years of age. 

Qualifications of workers. Much of the work in a plow factory 
requires manipulative skill rather than special vocational training. 
Certain workers, howeA^er, such as the pattern maker, require 
some trade training. The pattern maker must be able to read 
blueprints intelligently, should understand thoroughly the prin- 
ciples of moulding, and should possess a knowledge of the principles 
of die-making. The work of the foundry is so highly specialized, 
and tools and machines have come into use to such an extent that 
the work of the foundryman is comparatively simple. Forge oper- 
ations require some skill on the part of the worker, but since the 
work is producing standardized parts in large quantities, 'the skill 
may be easily acquired in the shop. This is true, also, of fitters, 
grinders and polishers, woodwork men, and assemblers. 

Shop training. No apprenticeship has been established in the 
industry. Boys obtain their training informally by contact with 
the work and with men who have learned to perform the several 
operations skilfully. 

Wages. Pattern makers receive $4.00 per day, and forge shop 
men not less than 20c per hour. Most of the work, however, is 
piecework, and the rate is fixed on new parts after the worker 
has been given a trial. Foundry work is piecework, the men 
earning from $3.50 to $4.50 per day. 



332 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Table VIII — Employees in Plow Works Classified by Occupation 



Defartment and Occupation 



Total 

Pattern Shop and Drafting Room: 

Metal, wood and plaster pattern makers 
Machinists (Mainly on pattern work) . . . 
Die makers 

Foundry : 

Core makers 

Molders, machine 

Molders, bench 

Molders, floor 

Laborers 

Forge : 

Drop forging operations 

Hand forging operations 

Bulldozer operations 

Helpers 

Machine Shop: 

Machine hand (Drill, shear, etc.) 

Machinist (Repairs) 

Fitting Department: 

Plow fitters (base and point) 

Inspectors 

Truckers , 

Grinding and Polishing Department: 

Grinders 

Edgers 

Woodworking Shop: 

Woodwork on handles and beams 

Carpenters 

Paint Shop: 

Dippers 

Brush hands 

Stencilers 

Stripers 

Assembling Department: 

Stockers 

Assemblers 

Shipping Department: 

Stockmen 

Handlers 

Sweepers 



Number of Employees 



Total 



245 



23 

5 
7 
16 



29 
5 



14 



Shop 
No. 1 



131 



9 

4 

10 

20 



17 



Shop 
No. 2 



Shop 
No. 3 



59 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 333 

Can the schools co-operatef The special skill required by much 
of the work of the plow industry can be acquired only in the factory 
itself where the special operations are in progress. There are, 
however, as has been noted, some men employed, such, for example, 
as forge and foundrymen and pattern makers, who require a gen- 
eral trade training and the school might well act in co-operation 
with the industry in training these men. Such training would 
undoubtedly be of advantage, both to employer and to employee. 

The industry has indicated a desire to co-operate with the schools 
in the promotion of suitable courses, and it would be benefited 
by a prevocational course for boys, in which the fundamental princi- 
ples of foundry and forge work are taught ; and by evening courses 
along similar lines for journeymen, which should include some 
mathematics and drafting. 

2. Occupational Analyses * 

Pattern shop processes. Most of the patterns used are made 
of metal and mounted on moulding machines or match plates for 
floor or bench moulding. Both cast iron and brass are used. In 
making special dies for metal pattern work, plaster of paris is 
used to a considerable extent. This makes a pattern which has no 
grain, and is easily worked with carving tools. Some wood pattern- 
making is done on small plow parts. The machine work done 
on metal patterns is important, and a lathe, shaper, and drill are 
operated in the pattern shop to do this and other necessary work. 
Very little machine tool work is done on the plows. The fitting 
up is done by grinding the parts to fit a template made from a 
master template. Much skill is required on parts which are to be 
mounted on machines, since an accurate pattern saves much timo 
in fitting the parts together. On patterns for dies, which are made 
of heavy cast iron, -a knowledge of the principles of die-making 
is essential. 

Foundry processes. The moulding in a plow works foundry is 
similar to general foundry work. Squeezer machines are used 
generally, and some bench moulding is done. Floor moulding is con- 
fined to special work which cannot be mounted on machines, and 
to dies not cast in quantities. Castings are frequently cast in molds 
in which chills are set by the moulder. This makes it possible to 



♦The processes'of.'the industry are described by departments. 



334 Evansville Vocational Survey 

harden a part of the casting without hardening all of it. Chilled 
moldboard and plow shares are made in this way. In moulding 
duplicate parts, the process of "stack moulding" is used in which 
several flasks are stacked one on top of another. After the metal 
is poured in, the castings are left to cool sufficiently to allow 
handling, and are then buried in a pile of dry sand for a period 
of forty-eight hours. This prevents them from cooling too rapidly 
which would make the metal brittle. In the one foundry in Evans- 
ville connected with the industry the sand is cut by machine, oper- 
ated by the crew that cleans the casting. Flasks are handled by 
hoists and are moved on trolleys. Two of the Evansville plow 
factories buy their castings ready made from patterns owned by 
the factory. It is their experience that it does not pay to operate a 
foundry unless the production is large. 

Forge shop processes. There is a variety of forging, bending, 
and welding operations in making a plow. Most of the w T ork is 
finished by drop hammers between dies. The parts may be welded 
together in previous operations, in which helve hammer and some 
hand-hammer work is done. Steel moldboards are finished by a 
drop hammer process between dies. The steel for plow shares, 
moldboards, and shovels is bought already cut to pattern. The 
steel is heated in oil forges to a cherry red heat, and with a single 
operation of the drop hammer is bent to shape. Steel plow beams 
are rolled to shape in a rolling machine, and afterwards are bent 
to shape in a power machine called a bulldozer. The steel is heated 
for each of these operations in an oil forge. The holes which are 
required in the beam are punched before the beam is bent to shape. 
Steel plow shares require two forging operations. The pieces form- 
ing the share proper, and the part of the share which goes toward 
forming the land side of the plow are first welded together in the 
helve hammer. Then they are heated again and forged to shape in 
the same machine. The holes have been drilled in the plates of 
steel before these welding and bending operations take place. 

Fitting and polishing processes. It is in the fitting and polish- 
ing department that the saddle of steel beam plows, the standard of 
wooden beam plows, the moldboard share, share and land side 
are assembled. The fitting of these parts is uniform in all plows, 
as it is done from templates made from master patterns. The fitting 
requires considerable grinding, which is done on emery wheels. 
After these parts have been assembled, they are turned over to 
the grinders and polishers. The grinding is done by bringing 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 335 

the work in contact with an emery wheel ; the polishing by bringing 
the work in contact with a wheel having a flexible surface about 
three inches wide over which is secured corundum paper. The 
work is placed upon a platform, one end of which is suspended to 
the ceiling by means of a cable. In order that the table may be 
kept in a horizontal position when at rest, two legs are provided 
at the loose end. Handles are secured to this end which make 
it possible for the operator to bring all parts of the plow in con- 
tact with the wheel. In emery wheel grinding, a constant spray 
of water is allowed to fall on the work. This washes away the 
particles of steel and prevents the work from getting too hot. 

Woodworking processes. Since the riding plow is fast replacing 
the walking plow, and since the riding plow is for the most part 
constructed of iron, the woodworking department of a plow factory 
is no longer so important as it was formerly. Moreover, the iron 
beam walking plow is replacing the wood beam plow, although 
a few of the latter type are still made. The handles of walking 
plows are bought already cut and bent to form. Plow beams are, 
however, shaped to form on the shaper. These then go to the boring 
machine, where the holes are located and bored by jig. The borer, 
also, tests the pieces by means of a jarring rap on the floor and 
discards all pieces which will not stand the test. 

Paint shop processes. Much of the general painting is done 
by dipping. This holds true in such painted work as plow shares, 
moldboards, land sides, and jointers — all of which are given a 
coat to keep them from rusting — and in the painting of small 
wooden pieces, such as doubletrees, whiffletrees and neckyokes. 
Much of the heavier work is painted by brush. Considerable 
striping is done, and the printing and trademarks are stenciled. 

Assembling department processes. From the paint shop the 
parts go to the assembling department. Here as many of the parts 
are assembled into units as seems advisable, the procedure being 
governed somewhat by the desire to avoid as much as possible 
the handling of large pieces. From the assemblers the parts go 
to the packers. 



XII. POTTERIES 



1. General Findings 

Importance of the industry. Pottery manufacture is repre- 
sented by two establishments in Evansville, employing a total of 
318 workers, of whom 124 are classified as unskilled. The sanitary 
pottery establishment employs only men over twenty-one years of 
age. No boys or women are employed, since the work is presser 
work, and the pieces to be handled are large and heavy. No 
apprentices are taken under the age of 21 to 25 years. The flat 
ware pottery establishment employs about fifty women. From the 
point of view of vocational education, the pottery industry has 
very considerable opportunities, although in the industry as at 
present developed in Evansville, these possibilities are presented 
to a limited extent only. 

Products. One of the Evansville potteries manufactures only 
sanitary pottery goods, including such ware as bathtubs, sinks, 
commodes, laundry tubs, and other toilet articles. These articles 
are built by hand in very large molds and require exceptional 
care • and skill. The other pottery manufactures a complete line 
of tableware, pitchers, bowls, and jars. 

Standardization of product. Both the sanitary and the table- 
ware pottery produced in Evansville are staple standardized lines 
of product, and the decoration is principally by printing, decalco- 
mania or litho transfer work, airbrush painting and stamping. 

Machinery and equipment. The characteristics of the industry 
can best be set forth by a brief description of its more important 
machinery and equipment. 

The most important machines are those found in the slip house, 
which prepare the clays for the potter. These include blungers, 
sifter machines, rough and smooth agitators, slip pumps, filter 
presses, pug mills, jiggers, bisque kiln and gloss kiln. There are 
numerous other machines in departments. 

Blunger 

Clay, flint, and feldspar are thoroughly mixed in the blunger. 
The proportion used of these several minerals is a trade secret, 
secret scales being used in weighing them. The casings of these 
machines are made of heavy tank steel, lined with vitrified brick; 
the shafts of the interior mechanism are of hammered steel; and 

337 

21-5543 



338 Evansville Vocational Survey 

the arms and teeth of the agitator mechanism are of open-hearth 
steel. The blunger weighs about 8,000 pounds, occupies a floor 
space of about seven by twelve feet, and has a capacity from 1,500 
to 3,000 pounds of dry material. 

Sifter 

The clay, after leaving the blunger, is called blunger slip or 
mixture, and flows into the sifter where it passes through silk lawns, 
or a fine mesh of copper wire, aided by the sliding, rocking, revolv- 
ing or vibrating motion of various types of sifters. The type most 
used is the sifter of the sliding motion, as it is claimed to give the 
maximum put-out without excessive wear. 

Agitator 

The slip after leaving the sifter flows, or is pumped to a rough 
agitator, and thence through a series of horseshoe magnets, or 
electro-magnets, which take out the particles of iron into a smooth 
agitator. 

Agitators are merely large tanks fitted with mechanism that 
keeps the slip in constant motion, and prevents the heavier parti- 
cles of the body from sinking to the bottom, thus insuring a more 
uniform mixture. 

Slip Pump and Filter Press 

To extract excess of water from the slip, the slip pump forces 
the liquid, now of the consistency of cream, through canvas sacks 
into the filter presses. The pumps are automatic, and keep the 
pressure of the slip in the press constant, while filtration is taking 
place. The filter press in common use has cast-iron chambers of 
from 72 to 75 leaves or small chambers each, the rail plates being 
round or square — 28 inches in diameter, or 28 inches square. These 
presses weigh over 16,000 pounds. 

Between the iron plates of the press are placed canvas sacks, 
through which the water is forced, leaving in the chambers the 
cakes of clay, now having the consistency of putty, the standard 
clay cake being 1.4 inches thick, and weighing approximately 42 
pounds. 

Pug Mill 

The final work of bringing the clay to the required plasticity 
and freedom from air bubbles, is accomplished in the pug mill. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 339 

The common pug mill is fitted with steel knives or cutters, extend- 
ing from a central shaft, which thoroughly masticate and wedge 
the clay into a homogeneous mass, and eliminate all air pockets. 
The clay is delivered from the mill in a uniform condition, free 
from lamination, and is forced through the nozzle by the down- 
ward pressure of the knives, also by the worm push-out, similar 
to a worm conveyor. It is then cut off by the attendant into lengths 
of about 50 to 60 pounds each, and is carried to the clay rooms. 
Pug mills are either upright or horizontal, those found in Evans- 
ville being of the horizontal type. 

Pebble Mill or Grinding Cylinder 

To bleach or whiten the clay body, a cobalt stain is added 
to the liquid slip. The cobalt is in a dry powder state when it 
enters the pebble mill or grinding cylinder. Water is added and 
the cobalt stain is redced to a fine liquid of the consistency of 
milk. 

Glaze liquids, also, are prepared in the slip department. Sev- 
eral ingredients, apportioned by a secret formula, are placed in 
a kiln and melted. This mass in a homogenous, hardened state 
resembling glass, is crushed under stone rollers or chasers, and 
the crushed substance is put into the grinding mill with water, 
and ground for a day. Other ingredients are added and the mix- 
ture is ground for a second day. The glaze is then run on to a sifter 
covered with fine lawn, where the coarser particles or impurities 
are removed. It then passes into a cistern in which is located an 
agitating mechanism that keeps the material stirred until it can 
be pumped into storage tanks in the shipping department. 

Jigger 

The jigger consists of a spindle provided witli a head intn 
which is fitted the mould, which in revolving must run perfectly 
true. A counter-balanced arm swinging up and down on a pivot 
is attached to an iron support behind the wheel. This lever may 
be pulled down until it reaches a position nearly horizontal, where it 
is checked by a set screw. The tool, a steel plate which conforms 
to the profile of the piece to be shaped, is carried on this arm, 
and rests directly above the head of the spindle. In flat work, 
such as plates and saucers, a plaster mould forms the face, and the 
steel tool the back or exterior of the pieee. Tn hollow work, such 



340 EVANSYILLE VOCATIONAL SURVEY 

as cups and bowls, a mold forms the exterior, and the tool the 
interior. By placing the sheet of clay firmly upon the revolving 
mold and lowering the tool, the desired shape is quickly produced. 
Adjustment for pieces of different thicknesses is made by means 
of a set screw. 

Biscuit and Glost Kilns 

The pottern kilns are built of brick and lined with firebrick. 
Through openings left in the sides the pottery is placed in the 
kiln and drawn out, these openings being sealed during the firing 
of the kiln. Soft coal is used for heating, a slightly higher grade 
of coal being used for the glost than for the biscuit kilns. Before 
being placed in the kilns, the ware is placed in saggers of fireclay, 
which protects the ware from the smoke. These saggers are piled 
on top of each other with long sausage-like rolls, or wads of clay 
between them. The wads are made by squeezing crude clay, mixed 
with a percentage of sand, through round dies in a wad mill, the 
construction of which is similar to that of the pug mill. 

The fire chamber of the average kiln is from 15 to 17 feet in 
height, and from 16 to 18 feet in diameter. It holds from 2,000 
to 3,000 saggers, the number varying with the size of the saggers 
and the capacity of the furnace. The first or biscuit firing occu- 
pies from fifty to sixty-five hours, according to the size of the kiln, 
the kind of ware firing, and the amount of heating required. The 
kilns require a period of about 48 hours to cool before the ware 
can be handled. 

The glost kiln is similar to the biscuit kiln, excepting that the 
saggers are often smaller, as the work cannot be piled so closely 
as it is in the biscuit kiln. 

Specialization of processes. The division of labor in the pot- 
teries is shown in Table IX. There is comparatively little shifting 
on the part of employees from one employment to another. 

Labor supply. Skilled men who have served full apprentice- 
ships are often obtained from without the city. There is 
considerable migration among pottery workers, who seem to be 
eharaeterized by roving dispositions. Their income, it may be noted.. 
is sufficiently large to permit of their roving from one pottery city 
to another, and this migration affords them some elements of variety 
in their somewhat monotonous trade. A new job equally well, or 
perhaps better, paid is easily secured, if the individual has mas- 
tered his trade well. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 



341 



Table IX— Employees in Potteries Classified by Occupation, and as 
Skilled or Unskilled 








Total 


N 


umber of Employe 
Flat Ware Pottery 


es 
Sanit 




Department and 
Occupation 


ary Pottery 




Total 


Skill- 
ed 


Un- 
skill- 
ed 


Total 


Skill- 
ed 


Un- 
skill- 
ed 


Total 


Skill- 
ed 


Un- 
skill- 
ed 


Total 

Preparation of Material: 
Superintendent 


318 

2 

2 

16 

3 

62 

12 

12 

12 

2 

1 

4 

12 

3 

20 
5 

28 

9 
5 

1 
10 
13 
9 
1 
7 
2 
2 

16 
35 

4 
2 

5 


194 

2 
2 

61 
12 

2 
1 

2 
4 
3 

20 
3 

1 

10 
5 

2 
2 

16 

35 

1 

3 


124 

16 

3 

1 

12 
12 

2 

8 

2 

28 

9 
4 

1 

8 
9 
1 

4 

2 

2 


208 

1 
1 
6 

3 


116 
1 


92 

6 
3 


110 

1 

I 

10 


78 

1 
1 


32 


Assistant Superintendent. 
Weighing and mixing .... 

Forming of Ware: 

Clay carriers 

Pressers 


10 


62 


61 


1 




12 

12 

12 

2 

1 

4 

12 

3 

8 

5 

12 

7 
5 
1 
10 
9 
9 
1 

2 
2 

16 
35 

1 
4 
2 

3 


12 

2 

1 
2 
4 
3 

8 
3 

1 

10 
3 

7 
2 
2 

16 
35 

1 

2 








12 

12 




































2 

8 
















Stickers-up 

Firing the ware: 

Bisque kilnmen 








2 
12 

7 
4 

1 


12 


12 








Bisque glost kiln drawers. 
Bisque and glost kiln fire- 
men 

Bisque ware room emptiers 


16 

2 




16 

2 


















6 
9 

1 


4 


2 


2 






















SeJecters for grade 


















Decorating : 
































4 
2 








Decorating kiln firemen . . 

Packing room: 

Packers 








2 


1 


1 



342 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Many of the unskilled workers of the flat ware pottery are 
recruited from the grammar grades of the schools, as is evident 
from the fact that about sixty boys between fourteen and twenty 
years of age are employed in the unskilled operations of the estab- 
lishment. Many of these stay in the establishment as apprentices, 
serving from three to five years and become, as a result of this 
training, journeymen potters. The sanitary pottery recruits its 
force entirely from other establishments. The schools are not drawn 
upon since boys are not employed. 

Qualifications of workers. In the way of general education, the 
•occupations of pottery workers make no special demand upon the 
worker. They do, however, call for considerable trade and tech- 
nical knowledge on the part of the skilled artisan, who should 
know something about ingredients and proportions, so far as this 
information is common trade knowledge, and not in the nature of 
a trade secret, and he should have a general knowledge of pottery 
designs and decorations. 

Apprenticeship. As has been noted, boys are not taken into 
the sanitary pottery establishment under the age of 21 years. The 
ratio of apprentices to journeymen in this place is one to six. 
Workers usually start in the yard, and work two years before begin- 
ning their regular apprenticeship. In this period they acquire some 
general information about the work done in the factory. Their 
apprenticeship covers a period of five years. They learn one branch 
of the trade, and are paid a wage equal to 66 2-3 per cent of the 
journeyman's wage during the first year; 75 per cent during the 
second year ; 80 per cent during the third year ; 85 per cent during 
the fourth year ; and 90 per cent during the fifth year. The approxi- 
mate maximum wage of the journeyman is $35.00 per week of six 
days, the earnings varying considerably as the work is piecework. 

The Crown Pottery uses boys as batter-outs, mold carriers, clay 
carriers, and in other employments. No age limit is specified at 
which they may ontor the establishment. They work for a period 
of from 3 to 5 years, according to the branch of work which they 
do. Limitation as to number of apprentices varies with nature of 
work, being usually about one apprentice to eight journeymen. 
The wage of the apprentices is determined by agreement between 
the employer and apprentice. 

Wages <m<l hours. The wages of a skilled potter are generally 
higher than those paid to equally skilled labor in other industries, 
being approximately $35 per week. The wages in most cases are 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 343 

based upon piecework, which enables workers to earn remuneration 
in proportion to their efficiency. Kiln men, for example, are paid 
$2.00 per 212 cubic feet. The workers live well and work compara- 
tively short hours, which leaves them considerable time for recrea- 
tion. This may explain the fact that according to reports, more 
books are issued from the library to potters than to any other trade. 
In general, home conditions are pleasant, and employment is fairly 
steady. 

Can the schools co-operate f Since the work of the pottery is 
of a very special character, as- regards machines and processes, 
it would be difficult for the schools to provide any sort of technical 
instruction that would be of practical value to the worker. In 
the way of general education, the occupation of the potter makes 
no special demand upon the worker, beyond that degree of general 
education required for all workers to insure to them advancement 
in proportion as they acquire in practice, trade and technical skill. 

If the educational facilities of the state are to contribute any- 
thing to this industry, it will be necessary to provide an extensive 
equipment for the technical training of the few who expect to be- 
come designers, decorators, or executives. For this industry, tech- 
nical education would appear to be clearly a state, rather than a 
local enterprise. 

2. Occupational Analyses 

Manufacturing processes. The manufacturing processes in pot- 
tery work embrace assembling and weighing materials; mixing 
materials, which involves a series of machine operations; cleaning 
the mixture, or slip as it is commonly called, of metals or other 
coarse material; extracting water and air bubbles; forming the 
ware which is done by out-throwing, hollow ware pressing, making 
by hand from molds, rlat pressing, making from molds with ma- 
chinery, casting, and compression; firing the ware, which involves 
sagger making, stilt or pin making, wad squeezing, flanneling, bis- 
que-kiln placing, and glost warehouse work; decorating, which in- 
volves printing, transfer work — by decalcomania, chromo, or litho 
process — ground carping, airbrush painting, hand painting, stamp- 
ing, sponging, staining, and firing again after the decorating ma- 
terial has been applied. 

The slip maker has charge of the weighing and mixing of ma- 
terials, the preparation of slip, which consists of all the materials 



344 Evansville Vocational Survey 

mixed in water to a consistency of thin cream, and of the pressing 
and storage of the clay. He has charge also of the pug mills, which 
make the clay uniform in mixture. The slip maker has one helper, 
and there are four men who operate the presses and the pug mills. 
The composition of the slip is a trade secret known only to the 
superintendent of the pottery. The materials which enter into 
the slip are feldspar, kaolin, quartz, and several different kinds 
of clay, and they come from England, Florida, Georgia, and 
Tennessee. 

The clay is taken to the second floor of the pottery by two clay 
carriers, one for the jigger room, and one for the dish makers. 
Each jigger man is the boss of a crew, which consists of himself, 
one batter-out, one mold runner, or where labor is cheap, two mold 
runners, and one finisher. The mold runner is a boy who carries 
away partly finished ware, and brings molds to the jigger men. 
The batter-out stands beside the jigger man and flattens out a lump 
of clay by means of a heavy block of wood with a handle. The 
finisher works by the piece and removes the rough edges from the 
partly finished ware. In the case of ware which requires handles, 
four handlers and eight helpers set the handles in place. After 
drying on racks for a short time the ware is taken to the green 
room. On the way a count is taken by the assistant superintendent, 
and the crew is given credit for the number of pieces made. Losses 
in the kiln are borne by the company, but a high percentage of 
losses from the work of any crew will start an investigation. 

The ware is taken from the green room to the bisque kilns for 
the piece firing. For firing, it is placed in saggers to protect it 
from the flames. These saggers are oval, box-like cases, made of 
fire clay by the sagger makers, who do no other work. 

After the first firing in the bisque kilns, the ware is removed 
by kiln drawers, who take the ware to the bisque kiln room. Two 
men and six girls empty the baskets, and roughly sort the ware. 
Ten brusher girls brush the fired ware, and one carrier takes the 
ware to the three dippers, who dip it into a thin material called 
glass. Six taker-off girls place the ware on racks and boards for 
drying. 

The ware is next fired in glost kilns by glost kiln men, and 
removed after firing by the drawing crew. It is then taken to 
the glost warehouse. Two men and nine ware dresser girls select 
the grades of stock and seven warehouse men store it until it is 
ordered by the trade. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 345 

Each scale is decorated to order, and the ware is taken from 
the glost warehouse to the decorating room, where it is decorated 
by gilding or decalcomania process, or by spraying dif- 
ferent patterns on a ground work. In the decorating kilns the 
decorations are fired and made permanent. It requires two fires 
for ground laid work, since the ground itself must first be burnt 
in before the decorations are put on. 

A separate department is the moulding shop in which the 
moulds are made for certain shapes of dishes, which cannot be 
made on a jigger or turning machine. The mould workers work 
by piece and make what is called blocking and casing. 

Packing for shipment is done by two journeymen and one 
apprentice, and is a special trade. 

Decalcomania, chromo, or litho transfer decorating. Pottery 
ware is decorated by many processes, some of which are the fol- 
lowing : printing ; decalcomania, chromo, or litho transfer work ; 
ground laying; wet process ground laying; airbrush decorating; 
lining or gilding ; incrustations ; hand painting ; stamping ; spong- 
ing, and staining. 

Not all of these processes are employed in the Evansville fac- 
tories. Printing has been largely superseded by the decalco- 
mania transfer process; little or no staining, hand painting, or 
incrustation work is done, and all decoration is over-glaze work. 
The principal processes in the Evansville potteries are transfer 
work, airbrush painting, lining or gilding, and stamping. 

When girls enter the pottery they are most generally placed 
in decalcomania work at about 60 cents a day. The firm really 
loses money on this girl for about two weeks. Her work is care- 
fully watched and as soon as she is worth more than this she is 
given that amount, and from then on is paid by the piece. If a 
girl is not able to earn $12.00 semi-monthly her name is posted 
and she is urged to work more rapidly. Unless she can earn this 
amount she is discharged from service, to make room for tho 
more proficient hand. After a girl has acquired a certain degree 
of speed and accuracy here she may, if there is an opening, go 
into lining or stamping. 

In the United States the extending use of artistic pictures or 
designs made by the lithographic process in ceramic colors, known 
as decalcomania, has almost superseded printing. Cheapness and 
variety of color and design in litho-transfer work have tended 
to banish the printer from the pottery, and the transfer process 



346 Evansville Vocational Survey 

is perhaps more generally used than any other at the present 
time. Before the outbreak of the war, there were in the United 
States but one or two manufacturers of decalcomania transfers, 
and during the past two years the supply has been insufficient. 
These transfers are printed on a very thin skin-like paper, 
which is attached to a heavier paper for protection during trans- 
portation. The designs are made in mineral colors, which easily 
unite with the mineral glaze on earthenware. Each sheet contains 
a pattern in continuous repetition, the designs coming in large, 
medium, and small sizes to suit the different sized wares. After 
the heavy paper has been removed, the thin sheets of duplicates 
are laid out in piles and the designs cut apart. 

The over-glaze pigments, wholly in use here, have a wider 
range of colors than the under-glaze decoration, owing to the very 
much lower temperatures at which over-glaze work is fixed to 
the glazed surface. The over-glaze pigments are not generally 
subjected to temperatures exceeding 750 degrees, while the under- 
glaze decoration may be subjected to 1300 degrees. Many 
metallic oxides and combinations may therefore be used in over- 
glaze work which would be volatilized at the greater heats to 
which under-glaze work is subjected. 

In transfer work, ware must be varnished over with a very 
thin transparent varnish where the transfer is to go on. This 
varnish becomes invisible upon firing. The designs are placed 
on the varnish when it becomes tacky or gummy. The work is 
quickly done, and requires no skill other than that involved in 
judging the ripeness of the varnish. A girl next brushes the 
design down hard, washes off the paper, and sponges the design 
with water. If there is a flaw in the transferring, this process 
shows it, and the piece is put aside. The ware is drained and is 
then ready for firing, unless lining or airbrush decorating is to be 
done on the same pieces. 

Airbrush decorating. In airbrush decorating the pieces are 
revolved by power on a decorating wheel under a hood. The color 
is applied by forcing a fine jet of liquid luster tint upon the sur- 
face of the ware by means of compressed air. Beautiful effects 
in light and shade are accomplished in this way, and by means 
of stencils wonderful results have been obtained. 

The over-glaze paints are purchased by the potters ready 
for use, and are all similar in color until firing, because of the 
deep brown medium used. Often these paints must be diluted 



Summary of Findimgs as to Industries 347 

with a specially prepared liquid called "essence," before they 
can be used in the air apparatus. Enamel paints, which are used 
to some extent — usually diluted with essence — retain their origi- 
nal color throughout the process. 

A third, or muffle firing, which follows, the air-brush deco- 
rating brings out the different colors of the luster tints. 

No saggers are used for the low-fire burn of the muffle firing, 
but the ware is placed on clay or iron supports within a fireclay, 
vault-like chamber heated on the outside by the hot fire gases. 
The heat is thus transmitted to the pieces almost entirely by radia- 
tion. The finishing temperature (not above 750 degrees) is de- 
termined by means of base metal thermo couples, drawn trials, 
or cones. The ware is now ready for final inspection and packing. 

Lining. Lining is the process of applying a line of color, or 
gold to the ware by means of brushes, the piece being revolved 
on a decorating wheel run by hand. This is very close work, 
requiring a steady hand. 

The metallic decoration in lining is liquid bright gold, matt 
gold not being used, although it wears better, because it requires 
burnishing and is more expensive. The liquid bright gold con- 
tains less metal than the burnish gold, and does not require 
polishing. The best method of its preparation is not generally 
known, although the preparation appears to be an organic solu- 
tion of gold-sulphur compounds. 

The cloths used for cleaning palettes are boiled in a solution 
which is burned to ashes. The ashes are sent to the gold factory, 
where the gold is extracted, and remanufactured into liquid gold 
for the pottery. A very considerable waste is thus avoided, a 
tub of gold cloths often representing a value of from $90 to 
$100. 

Stamping. Stamping is a cheap method of decorating used 
largely for cheap gilt decorations. The design is transferred from 
a slab with liquid gold to the ware in the same way that an ordi- 
nary rubber stamp is used. 

When a small design or outline pattern is to be in solid color, 
it may be stamped on in oil and dry color shaken over it. 

In spacing the designs, the girls must depend entirely on 
the eye. They work slowly as beginners, but speed increases 
with experience. 



348 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The trademark is stamped on with the rubber stamp, using a 
tint instead of gold, and while the ware is still unglazed. Usually 
there is but one firing for the decoration, however when gold is 
to be placed over some other color, two firings are required. 



XIII.5 PRINTING 



1. General Findings 

Importance of the industry. The printing trade is represented 
by eleven establishments, employing approximately 181 men and 
women in the different occupations of the industry and 17 appren- 
tices. 

Product. These establishments are engaged in printing books, 
labels, advertisements, pamphlets, catalogues, blank forms, daily 
papers, periodicals, and bags and wrapping paper; the making 
of calendars; plate and photo engraving; lithographing; and 
bookbinding. 

Standardization of products. There is comparatively little 
standardization of output in the printing industry, except in so 
far as regards the maintenance of general forms and styles of 
output in certain lines of work. Outside these forms and styles the 
output is essentially unstandardized. 

Characteristics of the industry. While all printing involves 
some use of machinery, at least in the presswork, the extent to 
which machinery can be used varies greatly in the several 
branches of the industry. The hand worker survives in the in- 
dustry in successful competition with the marvelously perfected 
and expensive machinery of composition and rotary printing, 
and the small shop in successful competition with the large print- 
ing establishment. Although machinery has come into the indus- 
try, and has greatly modified the industrial processes, it has not 
driven the hand worker out, but has rather increased output 
along certain lines, without diminishing the demand for hand 
work in other lines. The processes of the industry are performed 
partly by hand workers, partly by machine operators, and partly 
by automatic machinery under the supervision of trained ma- 
chinists. 

Specialization of processes. The principal processes of the in- 
dustry are listed in Table X, which classifies the workers em- 
ployed in the shops surveyed by occupation and sex. 

It will be obvious that special skill and training is required 
for each of these several trades, and that facility acquired in one 
line does not prepare the worker for promotion or change to any 
other line. In the small shop, however, a worker may perform 
the services represented by several trades. 

349 



350 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Table X — Employees in the Printing Trades Classified by Occupation 

and Sex 





Employees 


Trade 


Total 


Male 






Journey- 
men 


Appren- 
tices 


Female 


Total 


198 

60 

22 

1 

6 

6 

7 

12 

30 

2 

1 

1 

4 

28 

10 

8 


147 

43 

22 
1 
6 
5 
7 
12 
25 
2 
1 
1 
4 


17 
17 


34 


















Proofreading 




1 
















5 








Photo-engraving finishers 




• 






Etcher. . . 










28 




10 

8 



















Labor supply. Many of the workers are recruited from the 
grammar grades and the high school. Others are obtained from 
transient journeymen printers. Entrance to many of the trades 
is regulated by an established apprenticeship system. 

Shop training. Much of the training required in the printing- 
trades must necessarily be acquired through a period of service 
in the shop, and it is possible to acquire in the shop a sufficient 
trade knowledge to become a profitable producer, although not 
enough for the greatest possible efficiency. Adequate provision 
has not been made, however, for systematic shop instruction of 
either apprentice or journeyman, and it may be noted that the 
extent to w T hich the trade can be learned in the shop is limited, 
and is becoming more limited each year. This is not necessarily 
due to the fact that less information is available in the shop now 
than formerly, or that specialization has narrowed the range of 
experience, but is due rather to the fact that more is demanded 
of the printer, if he is to successfully meet modern requirements. 
Detail regarding the apprenticeship systems in the several trades 
is given in the occupational analyses for these trades. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 351 

Wages and hours. The union scale of wages prevails generally 
throughout the printing trades, and a statement of the wage scale 
and hours for each trade will be found in the occupational analy 
ses following. 

Can the schools co-operate? Employers have expressed their 
willingness to co-operate with the schools in rectifying the defic- 
iencies of shop training to the extent that they have agreed to 
turn over their apprentices to the schools for part-time day in- 
struction. 

It has been found that printers generally are deficient in knowl- 
edge of English, punctuation, and spelling, and especially of the 
principles of design and color harmony. 

It is suggested that these apprentices be given instruction in 
English, with emphasis on punctuation and spelling, and that a 
course of study in color harmony and design be given. Technical 
or trade instruction should be given in which the fundamental 
principles and modern methods of typography, including a history 
of the trade should be developed. Practice in composing and 
handling type, and in the sequent operations in evolving printed 
matter, should be given in order that manipulative skill may be 
developed. 

When the schools begin to give prevocational training it may 
be expected that some of the general industrial information and 
technical instruction needed will be given before boys leave 
school. 

It is believed that evening courses for adult workers or fore- 
men might advantageously be organized to meet immediate de- 
mands. Most of the young workers in this trade need some form 
of continuation school work, which it would seem can be best 
given under the terms of an agreement between the employer, 
the employee and the school. 

2. Occupational Analyses 

Hand composition. There are three lines of hand composition 
which include straight, tabular, and display work. Straight com- 
position comprises the setting of books, pamphlets, and other 
reading-matter; tabular ? work the setting of railroad time-tables, 
of price-lists, and of other tabulations ; and display composition 
the setting of cards, letter heads, title pages, posters, and all 
work into which the element of display enters. 

The straight matter compositor in following correct copy has 



352 Evansville Vocational Survey 

to concern himself chiefly with spacing of words, and length of 
line. The tabular matter compositor, although he has a copy form 
to follow, must frequently exercise considerable mechanical skill 
and ingenuity in spacing and in cutting and fitting rules. Display 
or job composition must conform to recognized principles of 
design as regards balance, proportion, arrangement of lines and 
masses in filling of space, and in some cases color harmony. The 
job compositor in following copy must frequently exercise judg- 
ment in spacing and alignment to work out effectively the pro- 
posed design. 

The hand compositor selects type from a case, and places it in 
a small frame or container, called a " composing stick," which 
he holds in his left hand. One side of this stick is so mounted 
that it can be adjusted to different lengths of line. Straight and 
tabular matter is set line by line until the stick is full, when the 
composed type is carefully removed from the stick and placed in 
a shallow tray or frame with upright sides called a galley. Dis- 
play matter, also, is generally set up in the stick, although in 
some cases it is set in the galley, or even on an imposing stone. 
The display compositor generally makes up his own forms. 

According to the returns of the Survey schedules, there are 
43 hand compositors, all males, with 17 apprentices in the city. 
A compositor's apprentice receives $6 per week for the first year; 
$8 for the second year; $10 for the third year; and $13.50 for the 
fourth year. This wage is computed on the basis of 48 hours per 
week. Journeymen receive the union scale rate of $21 per week. 

The compositor should have a good general elementary educa- 
tion, especially in English, with emphasis on punctuation and 
spelling. He should be familiar with the composition of standard 
forms for letter heads, business cards, covers, title pages, and 
other display matter; should understand the principles of design, 
color harmony, and lettering; and should have some knowledge 
of proofing and imposition. 

Monotype machine composition. The monotype composing 
machine, operated by a keyboard, produces on a paper ribbon 
perforations corresponding to letters or typographical symbols. 
As the machine is operated, this ribbon automatically unwinds 
from one spool to another. When the composing is finished the 
ribbon is run through an automatic type-casting machine, in 
which the mechanism for selecting the matrix, casting the indi- 
vidual type, and placing it in galleys is operated by jets of air 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 353 

forced through the perforations. The action is somewhat similar 
to that of a self-playing piano. The machine is entirely auto 
matic, and self-stopping in case of any mistake or accident. The 
chief duties of the caster or monotype machinist are to set the 
machine for work to be done, and to keep it in running order. 
At least one skilled man is necessary to operate this machine, and 
boys are employed if assistants are needed. 

No apprenticeship system for hoys engaged as assistants was 
reported. The union scale for monotype operators is $21 per week. 
The day of the worker is eight hours. There is at present no 
demand for monotype operators in this city. 

Linotype machine composition. In linotype composition a line 
of eomposed and justified type — instead of individual type — is 
past in one solid piece (slug), the composing and casting being 
done by one machine. 

The linotype operator works a keyboard similar to that of a 
typewriter. Above and at the back is located a magazine which 
holds hundreds of flat brass plates called matrices, each with a 
female letter or character impressed on one edge. The depression 
of a key releases a matrix. When sufficient matrices are assembled 
to form a line of type they are automatically transferred to a 
mold, in which the line of type or slug is cast. The galley is 
built up from these slugs, and the matrices after being used 
return automatically to the magazine. 

Linotype operators in Evansville, of which there are 22, work 
eight hours per day. The union wage for journeymen is $4 per 
day. The rate of wage for apprentices is not determined by 
union regulations but by employee and employer. Boys enter 
the trade between the ages of fifteen and sixteen, and serve an 
apprenticeship of five years. The general demand is for ma- 
chinist-operators; that is to say, for men who can operate and 
at the same time keep the machine in good running order. 

Proofreading. The proofreader reads proof to copy, uoting 
all errors in composition by failure to follow copy, and all me- 
chanical defects, and is assisted in some cases by a copyholder, 
who reads aloud from the copy. After the compositor has made 
the corrections indicated by the proofreader, another proof is 
11 pulled," and if necessary further corrections are made. On 
this "first revise" the proofreader "queries'Tto the author any 
doubtful points before forwarding it along with the original 
manuscript to the author for corrections or alterations. When 

22—5543 



354 Evansville Vocational Survey 

the proof is returned and the final corrections have been made, 
the galleys of type and the proofs are turned over to the "make- 
up" man. After the galleys have been paged, another proof is 
taken and corrections made. Tn book work a final or (F) proof 
is made after the forms have been imposed. 

According to the returns on the Survey schedules, there are 
five male and one female proofreaders in Evansville. So far as 
reported there is no form of apprenticeship. The proof reader 
should have a good elementary education and a trade knowledge 
of the conventional signs, symbols, and markings used in correct- 
ing proofs. * 

MaJcing-up and imposition. While the occupation of the make- 
up man is distinct from that of the stonehand, the work is similar 
in nature, and in Evansville the making-up and imposition are 
generally done by one man since few establishments are large 
enough to require both a make-up man and stonehand. 

The make-up man receives the galleys of composed type or 
linotype slugs, and a proof of the same. He divides the type 
galleys into page lengths; inserts cuts, running titles, and folios: 
spaces out the pages to equal lengths, and ties them with strong 
cord to prevent the type from becoming "pied" in handling. 
Proofs are then pulled and corrections made, a set of proofs sent 
to the stonehand, in case a man is employed specially for imposition. 

The pages of type are then ready for imposition on a smooth, 
even surface, generally a table with an iron or marble top, called 
an imposing stone. A strong iron frame or" chase" is put around 
the pages, the margins are properly spaced, the type leveled down 
with a mallet and planer, and the form securely locked up by 
means of sets of double wedges called quoins. Any number of 
pages may be imposed in one form according to the size of the 
page and press to be used, but the usual number is from 4 to 32 
pages, in units of four pages. In book work a final or (F) proof 
is then made and the forms are ready to be electrotyped, stereo- 
typed, or sent directly to the press. 

According to the returns of the Survey there are 7 make-up 
men and stonehands. Journeymen receive $2] per week. There 
is no available definite information as to apprenticeship, but 
wages are advanced according to individual proficiency. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries ;>").'> 

Stereotyping. Stereotyping is the process of making metal 
plates, reproducing in facsimile the surface of engravings or type 
set up as for direct printing. 

The form of type which is to be reproduced is imposed in an 
ordinary chase, in the same manner as for direct printing except 
that iron bearers, type high, are placed all around the type matter 
before the form is locked up. The material for the matrix in the 
papier-mache process, is formed by spreading paste on a sheet 
of moderately thick unsized paper, and covering it with successive 
sheets of tissue paper, each carefully pasted and rolled down 
smooth. This prepared sheet is saturated with water, laid on 
the form with the tissue side next to the type, and thoroughly 
beaten into form with a stiff brush. In newspaper offices the 
material is forced into form by means of a power roller exerting 
great pressure. 

After being beaten in, the form and sheet, covered with a 
blanket, are conveyed to a drying press, or steam table, to be 
"cooked" under heavy pressure. The matrix is thus quickly 
dried and hardened, and removed from the form. When its 
edges have been trimmed, it is placed face up on the bottom 
of a casting box, where it is held firmly in position while the lid 
is fastened down. Molten lead is poured in at one end of the 
casting box, and the plate thus formed is removed, trimmed and 
sent to the pressroom. 

According to the returns of the Survey there are 6 stereo- 
typers in Evansville. The wage for journeymen is $16 per week. 
The trade knowledge embraces information regarding the prep- 
aration of mats, the length of time to "cook," the regulation 
of temperatures in casting type metal, the preparation of matrix 
and casting box and correction of errors in stereotype plates. 

Presswork ; cylinder pressmen. Three methods are employed in 
printing, which may be briefly described as follows: (1) The 
relief method, or printing from type wood blocks, halftones and 
etchings carved or engraved in relief; (2) the intaglio method, 
or printing from plates that have been etched or engraved either 
by hand or by a photographic process, the etched part being 
filled with ink and printed on some medium by pressure; and (3) 
the lithographic method, or printing from stone, zinc or aluminum 
plates, upon which some design has been transferred. 

Either platen or cylinder presses are used in these several 
lines of work, hi the platen press the form and the platen, or 



350 Evansville Vocational Survey 

impression surface, are both flat, the impression being made by 
bringing both surfaces together under pressure. This machine 
is used generally for small work, such as printing cards, hand- 
bills and labels. 

Cylinder presses are of two general classes: (1) Those in 
which the bed carrying the form is flat and passes back and forth 
beneath a revolving cylinder or impression surface; and (2) those 
where the paper is fed between two cylinders revolving in oppo- 
site directions, one carrying the form and the other the impression 
surface. The former is the press in more general use, while the 
latter is used for newspaper and book work, where large editions 
are printed. 

Very few handpower presses are in operation now, except in 
country offices and in small home plants. The method of driv- 
ing direct from a motor is becoming more popular all the time, 
because of the ease of starting and stopping the presses and the 
convenience of having each press operated separately by individual 
motors. j 

The duties of the pressman include the following: Making 
ready forms, mixing inks, keeping color uniform, detecting imper- 
fect impressions, registering forms, embossing and taking care of 
presses and rollers. 

Probably the most important duty of the pressman is making 
ready the forms. By this is meant the adjustment of the form 
of the bed of the press to make the impression clear and even. 
When the first impression is pulled, it may be too weak or too 
strong in spots, and the pressman must remedy the defect in one 
or more of three ways, i. e., (1) applying more pressure, (2) under- 
laying, and (3) overlaying. If the general tone of the impression 
is weak, it may be regulated by applying more pressure, but care 
must be taken not to increase pressure to the point of injuring 
the paper. If this adjustment does not rectify the imprint, under- 
laying or overlaying is necessary. Underlaying is raising the 
form at the point where the impression is weak, and overlaying 
is building up the tympan, the weak spot, and removing from 
the cylinder some of the paper where the impression is the strong- 
est. This is especially difficult in halftone work, where the first 
impression may be flat and lifeless, and the test of a good pressman 
is his ability to make ready halftone work. 

Another very important duly devolving upon the pressman is 
keeping colors uniform. He must be able not, only to regulate 



Summary of Findings as to Industries :->f)7 

the amount of ink used, but to detect the slightest change in 
color. This is especially difficult and important when matching 
colors on work which may have been printed for some time. 
The pressman must be able to mix inks and match colors, and 
he should, therefore, develop, if possible, a sense of color harmony. 

He must instantly detect any imperfections in the sheets as 
they come from the press. Sometimes the forms get dirty and 
clogged, and the impression is not clear, or particles of foreign 
matter may get on the tympan, or plate, causing a blur. "What- 
ever the cause, it must be quickly detected and remedied. 

The pressman must see that the forms register and that the 
margins are correct. This is especially important in book work, 
where lack of uniformity in the margins is a serious defect. This 
is remedied by adjusting the form until it registers correctly. 

Care of the press is of prime importance. If it is not properly 
oiled, cleaned and watched for any sign of mechanical disorder, 
it will finally become unfit for good work, so that no matter how 
carefully the pressman makes ready, mixes the inks, or feeds the 
press, the best results cannot be obtained. 

The chief difference between the work done by the pressman 
on the platen, or flat-bed cylinder machine, and that done on the 
web, or newspaper press, is in the make-ready, and arises from 
the difference in the forms. The form on the web press is cast 
in one piece to fit the cylinder that holds it, and the impression 
is regulated altogether by underlaying. Since the newspapers 
are printed under pressure of time, facility in making ready is 
important. 

The pressman should know something of the chemistry of inks, 
of color harmony and of the processes of lithography, engraving, 
stereotyping and electrotyping. 

Pressfeeding. The pressfeeder feeds paper to the presses, but 
performs other duties, including making the general wash-up of 
press and rollers, helping make ready, oiling press and assisting 
pressman as needed. 

Since a platen press, on which only small work, such as cards 
and labels are done, does not deliver the printed sheet, the feeder 
must feed in the sheet with one hand and take it out with the 
other. He places a stock of paper by his right hand, feeds in a 
sheet at a time with that hand and, after the impression has 
been made, removes the sheet with his left hand. He must be 



358 Evansville Vocational Survey 

constantly on the alert to feed in and remove the sheet as the 
press operates, and to detect any imperfections in the impression. 

The cylinder pressfeeder stands at the side of the press and 
feeds in the sheets of paper one at a time, as the bed, with a recip- 
rocating motion, moves under the cylinder which forms the 
impression, the press delivering the printed sheet automatically. 
The sheets are generally large, and the feeder must acquire the 
knack of placing the paper against the guides accurately and 
without wrinkles. If the feeding is carelessly done, the sheet will 
go through the press wrinkled, or get on ink rollers and be ruined. 
The feeder is expected also to watch for any defect in the impres- 
sions or in the operation of the press and to report such defects 
to the pressman. 

The feeder, as has been noted, helps the pressman make 
ready, regulate the impression, care for the machine and make 
a general wash-up of the press and ink rollers. The forms are 
washed with a solution of lye and water, or with gasoline, and 
the rollers are cleaned with gasoline or oil, or any of the modern 
noncombustible wash-up fluids. 

On some of the latest presses, both cylinder and platen, self- 
feeding devices are in use, obviating the necessity of having a 
feeder for each press. A man is required, however, to load the 
paper in bulk on the machine, one man tending several machines. 

In newspaper offices using web presses the paper is fed from 
a roll of paper, is printed on both sides as it goes through the press, 
and comes out in the form of a newspaper, counted, folded and 
ready for delivery, at the rate of 60,000 or more 12-page papers 
an hour. No pressfeeders are employed in these offiees. 

In some establishments where the feeder is kept busy all the 
time feeding the press, a pressman's helper does such work as 
assisting the pressman, washing up and oiling the machine. 

There are, according to Survey schedules, 30 pressfeeders in 
Evansville, including 25 males and 5 females. The union scale 
for wages of cylinder pressfeeders in Evansville varies from $7 
to $12 per week. No scale is maintained for platen feeders. 
Feeders work 8 hours per day. 

Very little training is necessary for pressfeeding, but should 
the feeder expect to become a foreman lie should have the sehool 
training necessary to become an efficient pressman. 

I'hulo-engraviny. Photo-engraving is a photo-mechanical pro 
cess of engraving in which the printing surface is in a relief. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 359 

It includes zinc etching, making line ruts, the halftone and other 
processes. 

The photographer in a photo-engraving establishment is 
known as the "operator." The picture, or drawing, to be pro- 
duced by the halftone process is placed on a support in front of 
a specially designed copying camera. Wet plates are made instead 
of the dry plates of ordinary photography. 

The process is briefly as follows : In front of a prepared 
sensitive plate is placed the "screen", a gelatin film on which a 
series of black lines have been photographed. This film is ce- 
mented between two sheets of plate glass. In place of the gelatin 
film a mechanically engraved sheet of glass may be used. After 
exposure to light in the usual manner the print, or negative, 
shows the subject in halftone on a ground of lines, the surface 
of the negative being broken up by lines, or dots, in regular series. 
The operator develops his own negative, which is in the form of a 
collodion film on a glass plate. In making negatives for zinc 
etchings the process is the same except that the screen is not used. 

The etcher receives from the operator the developed film, or 
negative, which has been stripped from the original glass plate. 
This he cements to another sheet of plate glass. A sheet of copper 
is highly polished and prepared by being coated with chemicals 
which are sensitive to light. This sheet of sensitized metal is 
brought in close contact with the sheet of glass having on its 
surface the negative. The whole is then exposed to an intense 
light, which renders the surface of the plate resistant to acid in 
a varying degree. The process for line etchings is somewhat 
different, but the principle is the same. The sheet of copper is 
then placed in an acid bath so arranged that by means of a 
rocking motion the acid is carried back and forth over the surface 
of the copper. When the plate has been etched enough it is 
removed from the bath and washed off. It is generally necessary 
to re-etch to bring out certain portions of the halftone to the best 
advantage. This consists of coating with asphaltum, which is 
resistant to acid, all those portions of the plate which are etched 
deep enough, and etching deeper the remaining parts. When the 
etching process is complete, the halftone is turned over to the 
finisher. 

The finisher is a hand-engraver, and to him falls the work 
of correcting small defects in the finished halftone, or etching, 
such as cutting out spots and building up. He also "tools out" 



360 Evansville Vocational Survey 

high-lights, burnishes shadows, vignettes and outlines the plates 
for the router to cut by. The finisher also does all the fine cut- 
ting out that cannot be done by the router. In Evansville the 
finisher also makes his own proofs on a hand proofpress. A 
proof er is sometimes employed for this purpose in larger estab- 
lishments. 

The router by means of a specially designed machine cuts out 
the etching, or halftone, to proper size and bends the edges, cuts 
away, or lowers, such parts as must be removed for multicolor 
work, and when the plate has been inspected and corrected by the 
finisher, the router mounts it on a wood block, which makes the 
cut type high. The router also does some hand engraving at 
times, as, for example, in cutting out borders. 

According to the returns of the Survey schedules there are 
two photo-engraving operators, one photo-engraving finisher, 
four etchers and one router in Evansville. Operators work eight 
hours per day and receive a wage of $21 per week. No inform- 
ation was obtained as to the wage of the photo-engraving finisher, 
router and etcher. 

The trade and technical requirements for these occupations 
include knowledge as to the making and developing of wet 
plates, the proper handling of the camera, lights, filters and 
screens; the proper lengths of exposure necessary for the best 
results ; the chemistry of the trade ; the principles of design ; 
preparation of zinc plates (sensitizing) for printing and for etch- 
ing, and preparation of the chemicals for etching. Skill in free- 
hand drawing and in engraving is also essential in some lines of 
Avork. t ' ''W T^'Tj 

Bookbinding. Folding, pasting, gathering, collating, and sew- 
ing, while they are separate and distinct operations, may prop- 
erly be grouped under one head, since, in many binderies, these 
occupations, with the possible exception of sewing, are inter- 
changeable. 

The first process of making a book is folding. Large sheets 
of paper are generally printed so as to fold in sections of 16 
pages. Such a section, when folded, is called a signature. The 
folding may be done by hand or by a folding machine, machines 
being generally used for large "runs," while for small editions it 
is often cheaper to fold by hand, owing to the expense of the 
make-ready on the folding machine. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 301 

Although in the making of a book there is a considerable 
amount of other pasting done, the work included under the 
specific head of " pasting' ' is limited to the pasting in of inserts, 
such as plates, maps, illustrations and charts. This work is done 
before the sections are gathered. 

After the sections, or signatures, have been folded, they are 
collected in piles and these piles are laid out in order so that 
when one signature is taken from each pile a complete book 
will have been "gathered." Gathering machines are also used 
in the larger binderies. 

When the book has been gathered and pressed it goes to the 
collator, by whom it is examined to see if any signature is mis- 
placed or omitted. 

The book is then ready to be sewed. Practically all sewing 
is done by machine, although in a few small binderies hand-sew- 
ing is done. The machine not only sews more rapidly, but also 
does better work. In machine sewing the signatures are sewed 
one at a time, with from two to five stitches, so that if one stitch 
breaks the signature is still held fast. Hand-sewing is done in 
such a manner that should the thread break the book is ruined. 
Small pamphlets are often bound together with staples. In some 
cases large pamphlets and small books are stitched in one oper- 
ation, all the sections being stitched through at one time. 

There are about 28 females employed in bookbinding in Evans- 
ville. The wage of these workers varies from $2 to $7 per week. 
The length of the day is eight hours. The work requires very 
little trade or technical knowledge, although a knowledge of 
the history of bookmaking would be of interest and value. 

In bookbinding a group of occupations are included under 
the general head "forwarding." These include trimming, round- 
ing, backing, lining up and casing in. This work is generally 
performed by men, and, while the occupations are dissimilar, the 
workers are, to a certain extent, interchangeable in all but the 
larger binderies. 

After being sew r ed the books are gathered, or "jogged up," 
in bundles, and the edges trimmed in cutting machines. 

"Rounding" consists of rounding the back of the book; this 
also results in concaving the front of the book. Rounding may be 
done by hand with a hammer, or by a machine called a "rounder 
and backer. ' ' 



362 Evansville Vocational Survey 

"Backing" is the process of putting in the groove on which 
the cover is hinged, and is done in three ways. The oldest way 
is to clamp the book in a press between "backing irons" with 
the back slightly projecting, and draw over the edges gradually 
with a hammer. The groove may, however, be made with a 
machine called a "roller-backer"; or the book may be rounded 
and backed in a machine called a "rounder and backer." 

"Lining up" is the process of gluing to the back of the book 
a piece of coarse woven cloth wide enough to project about an 
inch on each side. Cloth headbands are sometimes put at the top 
and bottom of the book. 

"Casing in," or putting on the cover, is done either by hand 
or by machine. In either case the process consists of pasting 
the outside of the first and last leaves of the book, putting the 
cover in the proper place against these pasted leaves and putting 
the book between boards, with the back projecting, and applying 
pressure for several hours. 

The wage of forwarders varies from $16 to $18 per week. 
The regular hours of labor are 8 hours per day. The busy season 
is generally from September to June, and the dull time is in the 
summer, varying with the class of work done. 

The design and title are placed on the cover by the "fin- 
isher," the work being done generally in hand or power presses, 
using dies cut from hard brass. In fine leather-covered books 
the design may be "tooled in" by hand. Finishing is done by 
men, though girls and women assist in a few operations, such as 
laying gold leaf on the cover preparatory to stamping and in- 
specting. 

There are at the present time eight male finishers in Evans- 
ville. The wage of finishers varies from $18 to $20 per week, 
the length of the working day being 8 hours. 

Finishers and forwarders should know something of the mate 
rials used, such as glue, paste, paper and cloth, and a history of 
bookmaking would be of interest and advantage to them. 



XIV. RAILROAD SHOP 



1. General Findings 

Importance of the industry. From the point of view of numbers 
employed, prospects of development in the future and of wages 
paid, the rebuilding and repairing of railroad cars and locomo- 
tives is of first importance in Evansville. Vocationally it is an 
industry of extensive range. 

Some indication of the importance of the railway car building 
industry in the country as a whole may be gathered from the 
Federal Census of Manufacturers for 1914. At this census returns 
were received from 242 establishments, which, in 1914, manufac- 
tured 138,178 steam and electric cars, valued at $165,071,427. 
These totals include figures for 118 railroad repair shops which 
reported the construction of 11,049 new cars, valued at $12,811,087, 
and seven establishments engaged primarily in other lines 
of manufacture, but which produced as subsidiary products 
4,481 railway cars, valued at $3,178,677. At the preceding census, 
for 1909, there were reported 280 establishments, which in the 
year 1909 manufactured 101,243 cars, valued at $102,147,396. Of 
these 280 establishments, 140 were railroad-repair shops, which 
constructed 14,792 cars, valued at $13,952,923, and sixteen were 
establishments engaged primarily in other industries, which built 
as subsidiary products 8,981 cars, valued at $5,934,871. The 
increase in annual output of such cars during the five-year period 
from 1909 to 1914 amounted to 36.4 per cent in number of cars, 
and to 61.6 per cent in value. 

It will be apparent from these figures that the industry is one 
in which the opportunities for advancement of competent workers 
are very great. Approximately 800 men find employment in this 
industry in Evansville. 

Product. The Evansville industry is organized for the repair- 
ing of cars — passenger, baggage, mail, freight and cabooses— and 
loeomotives. The work also embraces the making and repairing 
of car chairs, tables, desks and fixtures; of car trucks and brakes, 
and of engine and boiler parts. 

The locomotive, or car, is run into the repair room of the 
machine shop, where, in some cases, it is dismantled preparatory 
to complete rebuilding. A thorough examination is made of all 
the parts, and those that are injured or badly worn are discarded 

363] 



364 Evansville Vocational Survey 

and new ones made to replace them. The work of turning axles 
and drive-wheels and reboring of engine cylinders is done on 
special machines designed for that work. Other engine parts 
are made in lathes, planers, shapers, milling machines and drill- 
presses. 

Standardization of products. In this work, obviously, as in all 
lines of repair work, there can be no standardization of output. 
Each car or engine brought in for overhauling and repairing pre- 
sents a work problem for special and singular solution. 

Characteristics of the industry. The departments of the in- 
dustry consist of the following : Machine shop, blacksmith shop, 
roundhouse, car-repairing shop, boilermaking shop, tinshop and 
pipefitting shop. The industry as a whole is not seasonal, and 
there is little fluctuation in employment. When work is slack, 
or when it is necessary to reduce expenses, hours are reduced, 
and the men are thus kept on the pay rolls. The car repairing 
department is, however, exceptional in that work in this depart- 
ment is seasonal. The spring and summer, being the dull season, 
men work only short time, or leave to take up carpentry work 
and house-building. 

Specialization of processes. In Table XI, the 801 workers of 
the industry are classified by occupation, and as skilled, semi- 
skilled or unskilled. Less than one-fourth of the employees are 
classified as skilled. Specialization in the railroad shops in the 
main follow trade lines, the industry employing, for example, 
machinists, blacksmiths, boilermakers, cabinet makers and car- 
penters. Certain employments in which the workers specialize 
are, however, peculiar to the industry, such as axle turning, wheel 
boring and fitting, airbrake repairing, coach cleaning and truck 
repairing. In general, the work of the several occupational groups 
has a considerable range of activity. 

Labor supply. Sons of men employed in this industry show an 
inclination to follow their fathers' occupation, whatever that may 
be, and others enter the industry as helpers or as unskilled laborers. 
The majority of the workers in the industry have never completed 
a grammar school course. 

Qualifications of workers. It will be obvious from the occupa- 
tional classification of the working force that it represents a great 
variety of trade and special training, and it seems probable that 
the development of the industry in the future will create a demand 
for mechanics of a degree of skill somewhat higher than that 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 



365 



Table XI — Employees in the Railroad Shop Classified by Occupation, 
and as Skilled, Semi-skilled or Unskilled 







Number of Workers 




Occupation 


Total 


Skilled 


Semi- 
skilled 


Un- 
skilled 


Total 


801 

1 

1 
13 
14 

2 
23 

1 
31 

3 
11 

8 

4 . 
18 

4 

3 

6 

4 

3 

2 

1 
1 
1 
3 
2 
2 

1 

1 

3 
300 
44 
14 
14 
14 
18 

4 

5 

5 

9 

2 

1 
153 

2 

4 

4 

2 

1 
14 
16 


181 

1 

7 

1 

13 


332 


288 


Airbrake inspector 


Airbrake repairer 






Axle turner 






Blacksmith 






Blacksmith's helper 




14 


Boiler inspector 


2 

23 






Boilmaker 






Boilermaker's apprentice 




I 


Boilermaker's helper 






31 


Cabinet maker 


3 

8 






Car and engine painter 


11 




Car inspector 




Car oiler 




4 


Coach cleaner 






18 


Drill pressman 




4 


Electrician 


3 




Engine carpenter 


6 
4 




Engine carpenter's helper 






Engine inspector 


3 




Engine truck repairer 


2 




Foreman : 

Blacksmith shop 


1 
1 

3 

2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
3 




Boilermaker 






Cabinet shop 






Freight car department 






Freight car inspection 






Machine shop 






Painter 






Pipe, tin and copper shop 






Planing mill 






Roundhouse 






Freight car repairer 


300 




Machinist 


44 




Machinist's apprentice 




14 


Machinist's helper 






14 


Machinist's helper in roundhouse 






14 


Machinist in roundhouse 


18 
4 
5 
5 






Passenger car inspector 






Passenger car repairer 






Pipefitter 






Pipe, tin and copper shop helper 




9 


Oiler 






2 


Scale repairer 




1 




Shop laborer 




153 


Stationary engineer. . . . 


2 






Stationary fireman . . 


4 




Tinner 


4 

2 

1 




Wheel borer 






Wheel fitter 






Woodworker's helper 




14 


Woodworker (Machine) . . . 


16 







366 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



which generally characterizes present employees. Since, however, 
the industry employs all grades of labor in many branches, there 
are no special qualifications for the industry, except snch as are 
specified for the several occupations in the industry. 

Shop training and apprenticeship. Some efforts are being made 
nt the present time to train young men for the more important 
occupations — such as those of machinists, boilermakers, black- 
smiths, pipefitters and carpenters — and an apprenticeship system 
calling for an indenture of boys in the machinists' and in other 
trades is now in operation. This system, though to some extent 
binding on the boy, has no educational provision. A graded sys- 
tem of promotion in the shop has been worked out, under which 
a boy starts in as an apprentice, completes his course and moves 
up the line with other men whenever any man drops out. 

Wages and hours. The railroad shops work from nine to ten 
hours a day for six days in the week, or from 54 to 60 hours per 
week. The rates of wages for certain classes of journeymen are 
given in Table XII. 



Table XII — Wages per Hour of Employees in the Railroad Shop 



Occupation 


Wages 

per 

Hour 

(Cents) 


Occupation 


Wages 

per 

Hour 

(Cents) 


Axle turner 


28 
34 
33 
19 
19 
31 
28 
32 
32 


Oiler 

Passenger car repairer 

Pipefitter 


19 


Cabinet maker 


35 


Car and engine painter 


34 


Car oiler 


28 


Coach cleaner 




19 


Engine truck repahvr 


Tinner 


33 


Freight car repairer 


28 


Machine woodworker 


Wheel fitter 


2S 


Machinists 











Can the schools co-operate? The management of this industry 
is in sympathy with publi-c-school work, and expressed a desire 
to be helpful in connecting up the public schools with the industry. 
It proffered every assistance by guaranteeing for evening school 
courses the attendance of all apprentices employed. 

The master mechanic is in favor of working out an educational 
scheme for the boys in the shops. The apprentices get practice 
in the shop, but they need school training. The following sugges- 
tion was made by the master mechanic: 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 367 

"In working out a course of study for these men make it 
a point to eliminate the frills of the course ; what I mean by this 
is to get down where the untrained man can understand it. Give 
it to him so that he will feel that he has gotten something every 
time he goes to school. These men have no foundations to build 
on. They must start at the bottom. In our machine shop we hud 
it necessary to make our own workmen, and the apprenticeship 
system has proven very satisfactory in this respect. One course 
I might suggest as being essential to put in a vocational school 
is a course in airbrake work." 

Owing to the fact that the principal shop is several miles from 
the central school buildings, it would seem advisable to offer 
any courses organized in some public school building located 
nearer the shops. 

2. Occupational Analyses 

Car repair work. Steel car repairing consists of straighten- 
ing sheets and steel parts, riveting plates and such other work 
as would be necessary in repairing a car of steel construction. 
Freight car repairing consists of repairing or replacing brace 
rods, bolsters, brake cylinders, pipes, draw timbers, flooring, 
grab irons and sills on the body ; riveting on truck frames, remov- 
ing and applying journal boxes; replacing springs and doing 
any other required work on trucks. 

Truckmen repair all trucks and build new ones when neces- 
sary. The extensive use of steel truck frames has considerably 
reduced the number of truckmen, as any bent or broken frames 
are straightened and welded by blacksmiths. These frames are 
complete steel castings with no wood at all about them. 

Platform repairmen do all work connected with platform 
and steps. They repair platforms and steps and build new ones 
when necessary. 

In all car shops there are several men who apply and test 
all airbrake rigging. This work requires about the same degree 
of skill as is necessary on other car work. The men have nothing 
to do with the repair of airbrake valves, as such work is done 
by machinists specializing on airbrakes and the valves necessary 
to the operation of the brakes. 

All metal work in a car is put in place by men known as coach 
trimmers. The trimmings consist of hinges, door locks, window 
locks, hand-baggage racks, cord hooks, lighting fixtures and 



368 ^Evansville Vocational Survey 

whatever metal trimmings are required for the complete equip- 
ment of a car. 

A certain class of inside car repair work requires the most 
skilled worker. In some shops these men are called cabinet 
makers, while in others they are considered car repairers. In 
all cases the men are taken from the regular force, and their 
work consists of repairing and making chairs, tables, desks and 
high-grade work for cars and fixtures for shop use. 

Car repair work is varied in character, and some of it requires 
a high degree of skill. An apprentice serves four years, divided 
about as follows : Six months on truck work, six months on 
rough work in the shop, three months doing platform and step 
work, three months laying out work, six months on locomotive 
woodwork, or "engine work," as it is called; one year on the 
outside of passenger cars, and one year on the inside of passenger- 
car bodies. 

Riveting and bucking. The riveter closes or forms a head on 
the protruding end of a rivet with a special riveting hammer, or 
automatic riveting machine, usually driven by air, hydraulic, 
steam or electric power. The rivet is a soft-metal bolt having 
a head on one end, used to fasten together two metal plates. 

Bucking is the holding of the rivet in place while the opposite 
head is being formed by the riveter. The holding-on hammer, 
or bucking iron, is a heavy bar of iron with a countersunk end 
to admit the rivet head. The hold for the rivet is always made 
a little larger than the rivet, so that it may easily be admitted. 
If the hole is not well plugged, the rivet will not stand the cal- 
culated strain. The action of the riveting machine upon the red- 
hot rivet in forming the opposite head while the rivet is being 
held in place by the bucking iron causes the stem of the rivet 
to expand or upset and completely fill the hole. Steel car work 
is classed as steel construction work, the same processes and 
machines being used in construction as in repairing. 

The riveting and bucking in the car shops of Evansville is 
done by the general boilermakers and repairmen, except that a 
considerable amount of the riveting is done by the apprentices, 
who spend a portion of their apprenticeship on this work for the 
practice it gives them. 

There are about 54 workers in this occupation, most of whom 
are apprentices, or learners, in the boilerniaking trade, and in 
steel car repair work. The work is heavy, requiring great strength 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 369 

and endurance, and the constant noise from the hammers in some 
cases causes partial deafness. 

Pipefitting (car shop). Pipefitting in car shops varies very 
little in the methods employed from those in use in the building 
trades. The car work done in Evansville being entirely repair 
work, necessitates a knowledge on the part of the workman of 
the various lines of pipework, such as gas, steam, air and water 
fittings. This class of work in the car shops necessitates frequent 
changing of the pipefitter from one line of work to another. 

The processes of the trade are the following : Cutting off the 
pipe by use of the pipecutter, threading by the use of dies, bend- 
ing of the pipe, either cold or heated, by hand or machine — 
wrought-iron pipe being generally bent cold, and copper and 
brass pipe heated; wiping the threaded end with either white 
or red lead, and fitting or screwing on of couplings, nipples, ells, 
tees or other connections by the use of wrenches. 

This work, while strenuous, involves no peculiar physical, 
mental or nervous strain. The majority of those engaged in pipe- 
fitting in the car shops of Evansville served their apprenticeship 
in the shops in which they are at present employed, and the 
work being fairly steady, there is very little change in the force 
of men. There is very little pipework that is not interesting 
and that does not require intelligence to execute, although some 
of the work, such as laying pipelines, requires some thought or 
initiative. The trade is fairly healthy, although in some steam- 
fitting work the liability to burns is great if proper precaution is 
not taken. The journeymen in this trade are members of the 
plumbers' and steamfitters' local organization. 

Air pipefitting is confined almost entirely to airbrake and 
other safety appliance work. There is more work of this char- 
acter than any other line of pipework in the car shop, as all 
passenger and freight cars are equipped with airbrakes. All 
of the steamfitting is in engine-repair and car-heating systems, 
the most of it being car-heating work. All air and steampipe 
work requires better joint fitting than either water or gaspipe 
work, owing to the great pressure of steam and air, and also to 
the contraction and expansion of the steampipe. 

Boilermaking. The trade of boilermaking consists of the lay- 
ing out, shaping, bending, flanging, assembling and riveting to- 
gether plates to form a cylindrical shell within which tubes or 

23-5543 



370 EvansvilleJVocational Survey 

flues are placed, and includes, also, the making of smoke boxes, 
uptakes, dampers, funnels, casings and necessary fittings. 

The boiler plate is laid off by the mechanic, called the layer- 
out, to proper size and shape, and the holes are located for con- 
nections and rivets, after which it is placed on the punch machine 
either by the use of a crane or by hand. The holes are then 
punched for connections and rivets, and the plate is moved to 
the shear machine, where it is cut to the proper size and shape. 
The plate is then run through the rolls, which gives it a cylin- 
drical shape. It is now- ready for the fitter. If the shell is to 
be made with a butt joint, the plate must be chipped or planed 
to fit, the butt strap placed over the joint and holes reamed out 
to match for rivets. A few bolts are placed in the rivet holes 
to secure the plate while being riveted. The plate is then riveted 
either by hand or machine, rivets being heated red-hot and inserted 
with the head end of the rivet on the inside of the cylinder. 
(See riveting and bucking.) 

When the riveting is completed the boiler is set upon blocks 
and perforated heads, called tube sheets, are placed in each end 
of the cylinder, for the purpose of holding the tubes in posi- 
tion. The tubes are passed through the sheets, and the ends 
turned over or flanged on the outside of the plates. These tubes, 
or flues, in some boilers convey the heat to the water which 
covers them, and in others they contain the water which is 
heated by the hot gases or flames passing around them. The 
smokebox, firebox and other parts made in the boiler department 
are placed in position and riveted on. The edges of plates are now 
chipped, joints calked to withstand the required pressure of water 
or steam and the stay bolts placed in position. The boiler is now 
ready for the machinist to set valves and gauges. 

Of the various types of boilers made, two may be cited as 
illustrative: (1) The sheet boiler, which is self-contained and 
in which the water is circulated. This type has fire tubes or 
flues traversing the length of the boiler, through which the flame 
and heated gases of combustion pass to impart heat to the water 
which covers them. (2) The tubular, or water-tube, boiler in 
which the water is contained in the tubes, around which the 
flame and heated gases circulate on courses determined by suit- 
able baffles. 

There are about 53 journeymen and apprentice boilermakers 
in Evansville, the majority of whom are actually engaged in 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 371 

construction work. The source of supply is from the lower gram- 
mar grades of the public schools and through an apprentice 
system. The boilermaker should have instruction as to the proc- 
esses immediately involved in the construction of boilers, strength 
of materials, principles of construction of different types 
of boilers, principles of steam engineering, mechanical drawing, 
shop mathematics and blueprint reading. 

The apprentice to this trade is accepted after he has reached 
the age of 16, and is required to serve four years' time. On 
coming into the shop he is put to heating rivets. The rivets 
being the most important parts of the boiler, since the strength of 
the boiler depends largely upon proper riveting, it is essential 
that the spacing and driving be properly done. The apprentice, 
although engaged only in heating rivets, gains from observation 
a knowledge of the different processes through which the rivet 
goes before and during the riveting. As soon as the boy becomes 
a proficient heater, or when he has worked at it long enough to 
satisfy the foreman, he is advanced to reaming. The reamer is 
a fluted tool with cutting edges used to enlarge and smoothe the 
drill holes in the boiler plates. The reamer is generally one- 
thirty-second of an inch larger than the drill used. It is oper- 
ated by hand, hydraulic or electric power. During this process 
the apprentice acquires a certain degree of accuracy and becomes 
familiar with the handling of the hydraulic and electric reaming 
machines, but not with their mechanism, as he is not far enough 
advanced to take up work of this nature. 

Tinsmithing or sheet metal work. The work of the tinsmith 
or sheet metal worker consists of laying out tin or other sheel 
metal, cutting patterns, bending joints by use of folder or brake, 
laying out tin on roof and closing joints by use of mallet and 
seamers or roofing tongs. He erects, furs and sheaths metal 
ceilings and side walls, makes crestings, awnings, hollow circular 
moldings, metal sash frames and skylights and covers fire doors 
and windows. He also does the tin and sheet metal work in 
connection with marquise work so commonly found in this city. 

There are about 13 journeymen and apprentices engaged in 
this occupation in the car shops o,f Evansville, and the work 
consists of the repairs on cars and plant when necessary, and 
in replacing tin and sheet metal utensils used on cars and around 
the plant. 



372 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The work generally is light and for that reason the employ- 
ment causes no physical or nervous strain. In the car shops 
there is a great variety of work which has a tendency to stimulate 
the interest of the worker. The trade is not unhealthful and 
there is very little danger of injurious accident to the worker. 

Employment in this occupation in the car shops of Evans- 
ville is fairly constant, with very little fluctuation. Most of the 
work is repair or replace work, and there is always work found 
for those who desire it. 

The apprentice enters this trade between the ages of 16 and 
20. The apprenticeship is of four years' duration. 

The great majority of the journeymen in this occupation have 
no knowledge of pattern-cutting, drafting or of mechanical draw- 
ing, and very little of shop mathematics as applied to the trade. 

Blacksmithing. Blacksmithing is a trade separate and distinct 
from the other mechanical trades with which it is allied. The 
kinds and properties of the materials used in the blacksmith shop, 
and the methods of handling these materials, are, for example, 
entirely different from those of the foundry. The only work 
bearing directly upon machine shop work is that of forging and 
dressing tools, and although this comes under the head of black- 
smithing it is, at times, classed as a separate and distinct occu- 
pation. 

The process of flattening or chamfering edges of iron prepara- 
tory to welding is called scarfing. The two surfaces to be welded 
are drawn out obliquely, a larger contact being thus given to 
them, which fortifies the junction of the two pieces. The two 
pieces should be upset before the scarf is made. Care should be 
exorcised in performing this operation, since the perfection of 
the weld depends almost entirely upon the nature of the scarf. 
Scarfing is not, however, necessary as a preparatory step in all 
welding. In the butt weld, for instance, the two pieces to be 
welded are simply abutted together, sometimes in the fire, after 
proper upsetting. 

Welding is the process of incorporating or joining together 
two pieces of wrought metal while at a white heat. The metal at 
this temperature is in a plastic, or semi-fused, condition, and the 
parts when placed together and properly hammered, unite in a solid 
body or joint. Tn heating iron or steel for welding a scale is formed 
which prevents the uniting of the two pieces. However, in the case 
of iron the scale, or oxide, melts at a lower temperature than the 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 373 

iron, and as a result the weld will be good if the proper heat has 
been secured. With soft steel or Norway iron the condition is 
different, since the scale melts only at a temperature higher than 
the welding heat. To overcome this difficulty it is necessary to use 
something to soften or melt the scale, and for this purpose what is 
known as a flux is used. 

Fluxing is the application of some good welding preparation 
to the joint before being w r elded. With soft steel, and sometimes 
with iron, a good clean beach sand is used, as it melts and com- 
bines with the scale, causing it to liquify, in which form it is 
easily forced from between the pieces to be welded. For welding 
tool steel to iron or soft steel a flux made of borax and sand is 
used. It is necessary that the metals be taken from the fire at 
the proper time, since if taken from the fire too early the pieces 
cannot be successfully welded, and if left in the fire too long the 
metal will be burned, rendering it useless for service. Great care 
must be exercised in heating, as both pieces must be heated 
evenly, and to the same temperature. 

In blacksmithing the simplest, and one of the most-used, tools 
is the sledge hammer. This tool is used for nearly all striking 
that is done on the anvil. 

The anvil is a heavy body of cast or wrought iron, with a 
steel face welded on, case hardened to prevent indentations in 
the surface. One end of the anvil is horn-shaped, for rounding 
and doing small work; the opposite end contains two holes, one 
square and one round, wdiich are to receive the ends of the 
various anvil blocks. 

The apprentice during his four-year period acquires 9 knowl- 
edge of the tools and their use. The first year is spent in helping 
around the fires and in handling small work on the anvil. ITis 
work for the following two years is graded according to his 
ability, and if he has been diligent and applied himself to the 
trade, lie is given every opportunity to learn. The remainder of 
the apprenticeship period is spent in handling the best class of 
work in the shop, and in learning to temper tools properly. This 
is very important and the boy should be given ample time to 
acquire this knowledge. 

Machine woodworking (car shop). In machine woodworking 
circular saw r s are used for cutting off, ripping and sawing angles ; 
hacksaws for cutting angles and irregular shapes; scrOllsaws for 
salving curves and scrolls; planes for planing and cutting to the 



374 Evansville Vocational Survey 

required thickness; jointers for straightening, smoothing and 
beveling edges; mortising machines for cutting mortises; tenon 
machines for cutting tenons; moulding machines for making orna- 
mental mouldings; shapers for finishing edges of work of irreg- 
ular shapes ; sandpapering machines for finishing surfaces ; lathes, 
boring machines and various machines for sharpening saws and 
edged tools. 

The worker in this trade prepares material for the repairing 
of passenger, baggage and freight cars and cabooses. 

In Evansville there are about 33 journeymen and apprentices 
employed in the trade. There is considerable danger in this 
work, and the dust which is raised is injurious to the health. 
The work is varied enough to stimulate interest unless the w r orker 
is kept continuously upon one class of work. 

Unskilled labor. The laborers are the unskilled workmen of 
the industry, whose occupations require physical strength, but 
no special skill or training. 

The work of the laborers in the shop is to load, unload and 
haul material; to assist in tearing down old and damaged cars, 
and to do trucking and any other unskilled work that is required 
around the shop. 

The possiilities for advancement are very limited. If the 
laborer is observant and is willing to apply the knowledge gained 
from observation, he may advance to the foremanship of the labor 
gang, or to a helper in one of the several departments of the shop. 

The supply of laborers available for the car shops relative to 
the demand for them is diminishing, as a result, it is alleged, of 
the increase in demand for laborers by the city government and 
by various industries of the city. There is more fluctuation in 
the laboring force than in any other department of the shop. 
A majority of the laborers in the car shops are colored. 



XV. RETAIL STORES 



1. General Findings 

Importance of retail trade employments. Evansville is a retail 
trade center for a population of approximately 80,000. Accord- 
ing to the 1910 census there were in the city in that year 1,072 
retail dealers. The number of salesmen was 650, of saleswomen 
266, of male clerks in stores 444, and of female clerks in stores 
218, the total number of salespersons and clerks being 1,578. The 
number of floorwalkers, foremen and overseers was 24, of whom 
4 were women, and of decorators, drapers and window dressers 
10, of whom 2 were women. 

Scope of the Survey. Twenty-two retail stores were selected 
for survey, as types of all retail stores in the city. These stores 
have been classified in the following groups: (1) Specialty 
stores, including in this group stores carrying but one or two 
lines of goods, such as, for example, music, shoes, books and 
stationery, or furniture; (2) five and ten-cent stores; (3) ready- 
to-wear clothing stores; and (4) department stores. The conditions 
of employment prevailing in these stores have been exam- 
ined and twenty distinct occupations analyzed. These stores 
employed a total of 827 employees, of whom 401, or approximately 
one-half, were employed in department stores, 241 in ready-to- 
wear clothing stores, 90 in specialty stores and 95 in 5 and 10- 
cciit stores. This distribution of the workers is shown in Table 
XIII, by sex. 

Of 827 employees found in the 22 retail stores covered by 
this investigation 617, or 74.6 per cent, were women. The rela- 
tive proportion of males and females varied with the nature 
of the establishment. The highest ijroportion of females — 91.7 
per cent — was found in the "5 and 10-cent" stores, corresponding 
proportion in other classes of stores being 78.3 per cent in de- 
partment stores, 71.8 per cent in ready-to-wear clothing stores, 
and 28.9 per cent in specialty stores. 

The relative size of the stores in the several classes may be 
judged by the average numbers employed per establishment in 
each group, which was as follows : For department stores, 59 ; 

375 



376 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Table XIII — Male and Female Employees in Twenty-two Retail 

Stores 





Retail Stores 




Num- 
ber 


Employees 


Class of Store 


Number 


Percentage 




Both 
Sexes 


Male 


Female 


Male 


Female 


Total 


22 

5 
3 

7 
7 


827 

90 

95 

241 

401 


210 

64 

8 
51 

87 


617 

26 

87 

190 

314 


25.4 

71.1 

8.3 

21.2 

21.7 


74 6 


Specialty 

5 and 10 cent 


28.9 
91.7 


Ready-to-wear 

Department 


78.8 
78.3 



Table XIV — Selling and Non-selling Employees, Classified by 
Character of Store and Sex of Employees 







Employees 




•Sex of Employees and Class 
of Store 


Total 


Salespersons 






Number 


Per Cent 


Others 


Both Sexes 
Total 

Specialty 

5 and 10 cent 


S27 

90 

95 

241 

401 

2X0 

64 

8 

51 

87 

617 

26 

87 

I'M) 
314 


594 

48 

54 

165 

327 

141 
36 


71 7 

53 3 
56.2 
68.5 
81 5 

67 1 
56 3 


233 

42 
41 


Ready-to-wear 

Department 

Male 

Total 

Specialty 


76 
74 

69 
28 


5 and 10 cent 


8 


Ready-to-wear 

Department. . . . 


35 

70 

453 
12 

;»i 

130 
257 


68.6 
SO 5 

73 3 

46.2 
61.4 

68 I 

81.8 


16 
17 


Female 
Total 


L64 


Specialty 


14 


5 and 10 cent 


33 


Ready-to-wear 

Department 


60 
57 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 377 

for ready-to-wear clothing, 34; for 5 and 10-cent stores, 32; for 
specialty stores, 18. 

General occupational groups. Table XIV shows the number 
of selling and of non-selling employees by sex for each class of 
store. 

Over seven-tenths of all employees in the twenty-two stores 
studied belonged to the selling forces. The relative numerical 
strength of the non-selling forces was lowest — 18.5 per cent — in 
the department stores, and highest — 46.7 per cent — in the spe- 
cialty stores. 

Table XV shows the general occupational distribution of em- 
ployees in somewhat greater detail. 

Retail store departments. Table XVI classifies employees by 
class of store and by departments in which they are employed. 
In all stores women constitute a majority of the working force 
in the selling, dressmaking, millinery, alteration and women's 
furnishing departments. 

Selection of help. The great majority of employers stated that 
they used no special method in selecting their employees. Five 
of them frankly admitted that they relied upon the smaller stores 
of the city to train their help. 

Kecommendations from friends alread} r employed, and per- 
sonal interviews, are the most common means of determining the 
qualifications of the applicants. A few stores insist upon the 
filling out of written applications in the handwriting of the appli- 
cants. A smaller number still give actual tests in arithmetic, 
spelling and writing. No tests are made for any specific occupa- 
tion on the sales force except in a few instances — usually for 
positions requiring a considerable amounl of experience and execu- 
tive ability. The factors usually regarded in the selection of 
inexperienced salespeople are : General appearance — such as fit 
of dress, lack of buttons and personal neatness — a pleasing voice 
and good manners. 

Employers invariably insist that the applicant for a position 
on the sales force shall be honest and have a good moral charac- 
ter; that the saleswomen shall be single and live at home; that 
they shall have good health, especially good feet (no broken 
arches), good eyesight and good memory for faces and color; that 
they shall be adaptable and willing to learn the occupation; and 
that they have at least a common-school education. Salespersons 



378 



Evansville Vocational Survey 







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Summary of Findings as to Industries 



379 



Table XVI — Employees in Retail Stores Classified by Sex, Class of 
Store and Department in Which Employed 



Class of Store and Department 



Total 22 stores. 



Five specialty stores 

Books and stationery 

Furniture 

Jewelry 

Music 

Office department 

Patterns 

Photography 

Pianos and piano players . . 

Piano tuners 

Player piano rolls 

Pictures 

Shipping clerk 

Shoes and rubbers, hosiery 

Talking machines 

Window trimmers 



Three 5 and 10-cent stores 

Baked goods 

Candies 

China, crockery and cut-glass. . . 

Cut flowers, plants 

Draperies, upholstering 

Drugs 

Embroideries 

Fancy goods and yarns 

Groceries 

Hardware 

Jewelry and plated ware 

Millinery 

Neckwear and veilings 

Notions and trimmings 

Office department 

Pictures 

Ribbons 

Sheet music 

Stationery 

Toys, dolls, wheel goods 

Windows trimmers 

Women's underwear and hosiery 
Unclassified 



Seven ready-to-wear clothing stores 

Books and stationery 

Boys' clothing 

Cashier 

Commercial advertisers 

Corsets 

Credit 

Display card writers 



Employees 



Both Sexes 



827 

90 
7 

18 

14 
2 
8 
1 
3 

10 
4 
1 
2 
1 

16 



95 
2 
4 
3 

2 

1 



1 

4 
3 
2 
3 
3 
6 
2 
3 
4 
2 
2 
7 
4 
29 

241 

6 

1 



Male 



210 

64 

5 

16 

1 
3 



Female 



617 



26 



87 
2 
4 
3 
2 

1 

4 

I 

4 
A 

3 
3 

6 
2 
3 
4 



4 
28 



190 

I 
1 
I 



380 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Table XVI — Employees in Retail Stores Classified by Sex, Class of 
Store and Department in Which Employed— Continued 





Employees 


Class of Store and Department 


Both Sexes 


Male 


Female 


Ready-to-wear clothing stores — Continued. 
Dressmaking and alteration .... 


30 
3 
4 
2 
3 
5 
1 
3 
8 

11 

34 
2 
6 
9 
1 
3 
1 

14 
2 
8 
2 
2 
1 

34 
3 
2 
3 
5 

20 

401 
2 
13 
11 
8 
2 
3 

2 
8 

10 
I 

14 
9 
6 

13 

20 
8 
4 
3 
5 


3 

1 
2 


27 


Fancy goods and yarns 

Furs 


2 
2 


Ginghams, blankets, wash goods 


2 


Hats and caps 


3 




Infants' goods 




Jewelry and plated ware. . . 




1 


Leather goods 




3 


Men's furnishings - 

Men's clothing. . . 


5 
11 


3 


Millinery 


34 


Neckwear and veilings . . 




2 


Notions and trimmings .... 







Office department .... 




9 


Patterns 




1 


Ribbons 




3 


Mailing 




1 


Sells in all departments . . . 


2 


12 


Shipping clerk 


•> 


Shoes and rubbers, hosiery 

Silks and velvets 


4 


4 
2 


Stock girls 




•> 


Toys, dolls, wheel goods 




1 


Women s cloaks and suits and furs . . . 


2 


32 


Women's gloves and umbrellas 


3 


Women's muslin underwear. . . 




• > 


Women's underwear and hosiery 




3 




5 
3 

87 




Unclassified 

Seven department stores. . 


17 

314 


Books and stationery 


2 


Boys' and men's furnishings 

Carpets, oil cloth and rugs 

China, crockery and cut glass 


10 

10 

1 


3 

1 
7 


Candies 


2 


Cashiers 

Corsets 

Commercial advertisers 


1 

(i 


3 
9 

1 


Dressmaking and alteration . . 


2 
10 




1 




Dolls, wheel goods, basement 


14 




9 


Fancy goods and yarns 


1 


4 


Groceries 

Ginghams, blankets, wash goods 


4 
L3 


Hardware and house fturnishinga 


7 
4 






3 


Leather goods 




5 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 



:*8l 



Table XVI — Employees in Retail Stores Classified by Sex, Class of 
Store and Department in Which Employed — Continued 



Class of Store and Department 



Department stores — Continued 

Millinery 

Mailing 

Neckwear and veilings 

Notions and trimmings 

Office department 

Patterns 

Ribbons 

Sell in all departments 

Silks and velvets 

Shoes and rubbers 

Toy department in season 

Women's muslin underwear 

Women's gloves and umbrellas 

Women's cloaks and suits, furs 

Wrapping 

Window trimmers 

Women's knit underwear and hosiery. 
Unclassified 



Employees 



Both Sexes Male 



9 
2 
7 
8 

17 
5 
8 

22 

11 
3 

65 
5 
7 

26 
9 
4 

16 

26 



Female 



00 
5 
6 

•22 
9 



are chosen for their personal qualifications, and with regard to 
length and kind of experience. They are not infrequently chosen 
from among young people just out of school, who have had no 
experience in store work or preparation for it. A written appli- 
cation is required in some, but not in all instances, the impression 
made during the personal interview being generally the deter- 
mining factor. 

Check boys and girls, bundle wrappers, stockkeepers and 
other young workers in stores are selected very largely on the 
basis of the personal impression of the person ki charge of the 
employment department. The chief qualifications for these young 
people are their ability to read, write and figure readily and 
accurately, and such personal qualities as willingness to work 
and to take responsibility. 

Buyers and floormen are chosen from the ranks of the reg 
ular employees after having shown ability and initiative neces- 
sary for the work, or they come into the store with the necessary 
experience for these positions. 

Skop training. In the majority of instances, no systematic 
instruction in the business is offered to beginners. They are usu- 
ally "taught" by the heads of departments, and by the older 



382 Evansville Vocational Survey 

and more experienced workers. One employer stated that every- 
one takes a "whack" at the beginner. In the 5 and 10-cent stores, 
however, the young men are taught the details of the business 
in order to enable them to become subsequently managers of 
stores, superintendents or executive buyers. No other stores 
undertake such training. 

Promotion. There is no promotion from occupation to occupa- 
tion, or from department to department in any of the groups of 
stores studied, except in the 5 and 10-cent stores, where men 
may be advanced in the following order: From stockman to 
floorman, floorman to assistant manager, manager to district 
superintendent, superintendent to district superintendent, super- 
intendent to district buyer, district buyer to district manager and 
district manager to executive buyer. Such promotions usually 
mean an increase in salary or commission, or a change to a more 
responsible position having no relation to the former one held. 
The qualifications for promotion usually are : Ability and inter- 
est ; adaptability ; building up of a department, or at least, keep- 
ing it up to the standard; economy in the use of paper and cord 
wrapping; general aggressiveness; good habits and persever- 
ance ; honesty ; length of service, and number of sales — this latter 
being regarded by most employers in Evansville as the best evi- 
dence of merit. 

Can th& schools co-operate? The common branches of instruc- 
tion taught in the schools, such as reading, writing, spelling and 
arithmetic, are fundamentally essential to success in retail-store 
occupations. 

During the progress of the Survey conferences were held with 
the merchants of Evansville, and these men freely expressed the 
opinion that something could and should be done to make the 
workers in the selling force of Evansville stores more efficient. 
Great interest was manifested in the method of meeting the 
needs of these workers through the public schools. It was felt 
that provision should be made embracing (1) part-time day 
classes for the younger workers in the stores; (2) continuation 
evening courses to meet the needs of the older and more or less 
experienced workers, and (3) day classes for those who intend 
to cuter the retail stores upon leaving school. 

As regards time of holding classes, it was suggested that 
morning classes and afternoon classes be formed. Every store 
has its rush hours when employees could not be spared, but that 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 383 

fact need not embarrass the work, as it is simply a matter of 
oareful adjustment. 

The general purpose of these courses in salesmanship a,s 
formulated from the employers' and the workers' points of 
view, may be denned as follows: (1) To develop a wholesome, 
attractive personality; (2) to give familiarity with the general 
system and practice of stores, covering such topics as store direct- 
ory, salesmanship practice, business arithmetic, business forms 
and cash accounts; (3) to increase the students' knowledge of 
the stock; (4) to teach selling as a science by teaching, for 
example, the proper attitude to the firm, the customer and the 
fellow employee. 

Specifically, the suggestions as regards courses were as fnl 
lows: 

1. Pre vocational training for those in school who wish to 
prepare for salesmanship. 

2. Specific training of girls and boys who have completed 
the eighth or a higher grade, and wish to become salespeople. 

3. Part-time continuation classes in the store or school for 
those who are already employed; (a) as inexperienced workers, 
and (b) as experienced workers. 

4. Part-time in store continuation classes in afternoon or 
evening for high school graduates, or others out of school. 

2. Occupational Analyses 

General classification of occupations. For the purpose of this 
study which is concerned mainly with the sales force, the occu- 
pations of the store have been classified as executive, buying and 
selling, and office employments. 

Executive positions include the men and women engaged in 
administrative work, as managers, superintendents, floormen, 
heads of departments and advertising managers. Executives 
without exception are men and women who have risen from the 
ranks of store workers. These people have had experience in 
the line of store work which they are directing and frequently 
have had experience in other departments of store work. 

Buying and selling positions include the men and women who 
buy and sell goods, care for the stock and look after the order 
and arrangement of their several departments. These workers, 
including the buyers, are heads of stock, stockkeepers, markers 
and the salespersons of the several classes or grades. In this 



384 Evansville Vocational Survey 

group are included, also, workers engaged in the actual handling 
of goods, in the receiving and delivering departments. These 
departments vary in organization in the various stores studied, 
but the differences are largely a matter of size and number rather 
than character. Check boys and girls are put in this class, as 
in Evansville these young people frequently do the wrapping 
of the packages for the sales clerks, or for the delivery-room. 
Such learners as checkers, bundle-wrappers, assistant stockkeep- 
ers and markers are included in the department of salesmanship, 
since these workers enter the selling occupations more frequently 
than any other class of workers. 

It is the business of the sales force to sell goods, or to con- 
tribute directly to the making of sales. Salespersons are divided 
into five general classes: (1) Buyers, and (2) heads of stock, 
who assist in selling in rush times; (3) general sales clerks; (4) 
■specialty sales clerks; and (5) table, or aisle, sales clerks. While 
this classification applies to all departments, no two departments 
can be said to require the same kind of ability, hence in a com- 
prehensive study of store occupations the duties of the five 
classes, or grades, of salespeople should be defined in detail for 
each department. 

Office positions include all those who have to do with account- 
ing, such as cashier, bookkeeper, transfer clerk, mail-order clerk 
and charge clerk, including the stenographer and the telephone 
girl. 

Executive Positions 

Managers. The manager is the merchandising executive. He 
directs the buying and selling of merchandise through buyers 
and heads of departments. The advertising manager and display 
men are also responsible to him for their work. Tie determines 
the kind and amount of merchandise the store shall carry and its 
division among departments, and the advertising policy to be 
used for the store. The manager must know markets and mer- 
chandise; understand business conditions, and know how to 
interpret the sales, losses and demands of the business he directs. 

Floormen. The fioorman manages the store traffic. He directs 
customers, sees that customers have attention, distributes sales- 
persons through the department, when for any reason one part 
of the department is crowded with salespersons and other parts 
left withoul workers, signs sales slips when necessary, and attends 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 385 

to the enforcement of general rules pertaining to that part of 
the store. He must have a general knowledge of the stock in 
the departments on his floor, have some knowledge about goods 
and taste in displaying them. He must also know the location 
of all departments and the kind of stock in each, so as to be able 
to direct customers. He must also possess ability to manage the 
employees in the departments on his floor. 

Advertising manager. The advertising manager is the one who 
informs the public what his store offers for sale. He classifies the 
stock for advertising as far as classification is necessary, makes 
the advertising "write-up" or supervises it, supervises or does 
the illustrating for the advertisements, and attends to the details 
of securing and contracting for "space" in the daily papers, 
magazines, or other media of advertisement. 

Buying and Selling Positions 

Buyers. The buyers determine the amount and kind of goods 
to be purchased for their respective departments, including re- 
placing of stock and selecting new lines to be put in the depart- 
ments. They purchase the goods for their departments, check 
up goods received and attend to the details of price -setting and 
marking of goods. In the smaller store, buyers frequently act as 
salespersons during odd hours, look after customers occasionally, 
if special attention is necessary and assist in selling on sale days. 

Buyers must know how to study and interpret demand and 
sales, for the buying is done on the basis of what the public wants. 
From a study of sales slips, the observing buyer realizes that 
customers frequently buy what they can get, rather lhan what 
they want. A good buyer studies this aspect of selling, and uses 
it in making a choice of stock both for replacing and for stock 
of new type or style. 

Details regarding sales, the demand of the customers and the 
kinds, value and selling qualities of stock in the department, are 
gathered largely from the salespersons in the department. In 
addition to this knowledge, the intelligent, progressive buyer 
knows many details relating to the manufacture of the stock 
handled, such as the kinds and source of raw materials used, 
the processes of manufacture, especially those that determine 
different kinds and qualities, and the changes made in the product 
from year to year. 

25-5543 



386 Evansville Vocational Survey 

• 
Heads of stock. The head of stock takes care of the stock in 
the department, and keeps close watch upon the reserve stock so 
as to be sure that the supply is always in right proportion to 
the demand. The head of stock is usually the most reliable and 
experienced salesperson in the department. Working under the 
direction of the head of stock, the salespersons also care for 
stock, each one, including the head of stock, having charge, as 
a ride, of a section of the stock. 

The head of stock must know all the kinds, qualities, amounts, 
the values of the stock in the department, and usually takes immedi- 
ate charge of the most valuable or newest type of stock, leaving 
the assistants to attend to the remainder. Amounts needed are 
reported to the buyer. 

In addition to the knowledge of stock and ability to care for it, 
the head of stock, as w r ell as the buyer, if interested and ambitious, 
knows many of the details relating to kinds, qualities, and manu- 
facture. 

Sales clerks. It is the business of the sales clerks to sell goods, 
though they share to some extent the responsibility for care of 
stock. Selling varies in all departments according to the type 
of goods handled. There are, however, certain fundamental princi- 
ples of salesmanship which apply in all departments. These are 
Treated in various ways by different writers, but in all cases fall 
under the following heads: (1) Approach to customer, (2) show- 
ing the goods, and (3) closing the sale, the latter including the 
money transaction, and securing the address of the buyer if the 
goods are to be delivered. 

Selling involves a kind of psychology which is recognized by 
merchants as a very important factor. Some business men refer 
to it as common sense. Others call it personality. It is in reality 
a combination of all these qualities, sometimes innate and developed 
naturally; frequently innate and developed by conscious study; 
but sometimes entirely lacking. The most important point in this 
psychological ;ispect of selling is the manner of approaching the 
customer. The sales clerk must study the customer, it' selling is to 
be done on a really skillful and scientific basis. The greeting, the 
attitude in listening to the customer's statement of her wants. 
the replies given, the kind of questions asked to elicit further 
information, the method of showing stock, the interest in the 
preferences of the customer, willingness to show stock of the exad 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 387 

kind wanted or the nearest kind available — all this requires a well- 
developed power of observation, a strong human interest, and a 
kind of intelligence that can be developed only by regarding what 
is termed the psychology of salesmanship. 

General sales clerks. A number of the dry-goods stores, and 
to some extent the department stores, employ a few clerks known as 
general sales clerks. These workers are sales clerks trained by 
many years of service, who sell goods in all departments of the 
store. They have a clientele of good customers whom they take 
about in all the departments or sections of the store, making all 
sales, and assisting in all purchases, for they are frequently con- 
sidered advisers of goods. In six of the stores surveyed, all clerks 
work in all departments on occasion. 

These workers must know the location of all departments in the 
store, have some knowledge of the location of different kinds of 
stock, be informed about prices and values, and exercise judgment 
in suiting the customer. When customers are of long standing, 
their preferences as to style and cost are fairly well in mind and 
the general sales clerk is guided accordingly. This training is com- 
monly acquired in the smaller stores, and further experience may 
be gained by working in one or more departments of a store which 
is more or less departmental in its organization. The privilege 
of working as a general sales clerk, is as a rule, given only to 
workers of long experience in the store in which they are employed, 
and in compliance with requests of customers who prefer to deal 
with a clerk whom they know personally. 

Specialty sales clerks. The specialty sales clerk sells goods in 
only one department, and sometimes only one line of goods, 
such as fine gloves, white silks, or children's shoes. These workers 
must know their stock, care for it, and display it attractively. 
They are expected, to some extent, to have a more complete knowl- 
edge of their stock than the general sales clerk, but more often 
the specialization is due to store organization, rather than the 
desire for a more exhaustive knowledge of stock or ability to 
handle it. 

Table or aisle girls. These workers are learners or apprentices, 
having their first experience in selling goods, making out sales slips, 
and wrapping packages. Beginners who have had no experience 
in selling are, as a rule, placed at these counters during rush days, 
as, for example, during the Christmas holidays. They are not ex- 



388 Evansville Vocational Survey 

pected to know stock, as their wares are changed every day, the 
worker usually not knowing what she is to sell until she appears 
in her place in the morning. 

In this position the worker learns a little about a number of 
different kinds of stock ; she gains facility in making out sales 
slips; she learns how to speak to customers, and how to interest 
them by helping them to find the different styles or varieties of 
goods on her counter. 

Memory is a valuable asset for sales clerks, especially verbal 
memory of prices, numbers, or other forms of marking used in 
designating stock. Visual memory, also, of patterns, or kinds 
of stock, and the faces of customers, some of whom the clerk 
may recognize with a greeting, is also a desirable qualification. 

Good eyesight and accurate color sense, also, is in a great 
majority of the departments, as for example in matching fine pat- 
terns, in matching colors, in threads and fabrics, matching the 
weave in cloth, and in reading the numbers, names or other forms 
of max King on stock boxes. 

Sales clerks in the stores in Evansville, with one exception, 
receive no training for their work other than incidental direction 
by the head of the department and assistance from fellow workers. 
That they can be trained and made more intelligent, able to give 
more efficient service to the store with the same or less tax upon 
strength, time, and ingenuity, has been amply demonstrated in 
other cities and is believed by the progressive merchants of this 
city. 

Check or bundle boys and girls. These employees work in 
the stores and not in the shipping department. They receive the 
package from the sales clerk, examine the goods, ascertain price, 
remeasure yard goods, verify the quantity, examine the sales slip 
and stamp it, send the sales slip and money to the cashier, wrap 
up the package, and deliver it with the duplicate sales slip and 
change to the customer, or where it is to be delivered, and tie or 
paste the address slip on the package ready to be sent to the de- 
livery room. In a large number of the Evansville stores, packages 
are wrapped by the sales clerks. 

These young people must be responsible and accurate in their 
work. They are required to have facility in making out sales 
slips, using arithmetical processes. They must use all necessary 
care in taking addresses, be able to spell all names of merchandise, 
and names of streets, when they make out sales slips, and they 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 389 

must be able to write legibly. Though carrying considerable 
responsibility, they are among the youngest workers in the store. 
They are, to some extent, the force from which the sales clerks 
are drawn and should therefore have the sales clerk's qualifica- 
tions and education. Occasionally a check girl will become a 
cashier, but this is the exception rather than the rule. 

Office Positions 

File clerks. The file clerk works in the office and not only places 
the papers in the files where they belong, but is responsible to 
some extent for the classification of letters and bills. This worker 
must have a liking for routine, have a good memory, be able to 
read readily, be a good writer, and quick at simple figuring. 

The position is rarely, if ever, given to a young person with- 
out commercial training. In some instances the work is done by 
the stenographer. The duties of the stenographer in the store are 
the same as in any business office. There is a large proportion of 
business letters known as form letters in which a standard method 
of writing the letter is used for all correspondence. 

Mail order clerks. The mail order clerk receives, reads, and fills 
orders for goods to be sent by mail. In some instances the mail 
order clerk is an office employee who attends to the business of 
writing letters and making out bills. When this is the case, an 
assistant known as a "shopper" selects the goods to fill the 
order, and attends to having it wrapped ready for shipment. 
When the clerk is both clerk and shopper, she must have the 
qualifications necessary for the office work as well as the qualifi- 
cations of a skillful buyer, for she frequently has to match colors, 
select trimmings, and determine suitability of material. 

Transfer clerks. The transfer clerk attends to having purchases 
or charges transferred from one department to another, and 
has charge of the refunds or credits for returned goods. The 
clerk makes out refund or credit slips, enters account of same in 
the special books provided for that purpose, and reports the 
transaction to the office, to be cared for through the regular 
channels of accounting. The position needs tact, patience, and 
good judgment, for the clerk must listen to explanations and 
complaints, get details about goods returned, and frequently 
make explanations that are satisfactory to the customers. It 
requires knowledge of simple arithmetic, and accuracy in mak- 
ing credits or transfers. 



390 Evansville Vocational Survey 

Tube or carrier girls. The tube or carrier girl is really a cashier. 
She receives the checks or sales slips as they come through the 
carrier to the cash desk, checks up the prices, amounts, and the 
total, O.K.'s the sales slips with a stamp, makes the change, and 
returns the slip and change to the sales clerk, or to the bundle 
girl when the latter is responsible for both the delivery of the 
change and the package. She also enters the amount of the sale 
on her recapitulation sheet, and at the close of the day balances 
sales and cash, and renders account for the day. 

Bookkeeper. The position of bookkeeper in the store covers all 
the duties usually performed by the employee engaged in such work 
in any type of business. It is her duty to look after all accounts, 
keep account of all purchases, sales, credits and charge accounts. 
For convenience the work is frequently divided into several classes 
with one clerk responsible for each class or division. For this 
work the usual forms of bookkeeping are used, and employees 
are trained for the work in commercial courses. These office 
positions are generally filled by persons who have had special 
training or experience. A strong liking for figures, for routine 
office work, and for accuracy, and dependableness are very neces- 
sary personal qualifications for this work. 

Shippers. Shippers are men and boys. They are divided into 
two groups, one for inside work — such as wrapping and packing 
of bundles, checking up of addresses and routing of packages 
ready for delivery — and one for the outside work of delivering 
packages to the homes of customers. 

Head shippers. The head shipper is in a sense a manager, since 
he is responsible for the method used in packing bundles, checking 
up and accounting for packages, and routing of packages for 
delivery. The head shipper, or shipping clerk, as he is some- 
times called, directs all packing, lays out routes for deliverymen, 
checks off the loads, or directs the checking, and manages the 
outside as well as the inside force. To do his work successfully 
the head shipper must be able to manage men; and he must be 
quick, accurate and methodical in his work, for the rapidity and 
accuracy with which deliveries are made depends on systematic 
work. 

Helpers. Young men and boys who act as packers and clerics 
aid the head shipper. The boys and men who do this work must 
be alert, strong and active, for several deliveries a day call for 
constant and frequently rapid work, and some of the merchan- 
dise is heavy and requires strength in handling. 






XVI. STOVE MANUFACTURING 



1. General Findings 

Importance of the industry. There are five stove manufactur- 
ing establishments employing at the time of the Survey a total 
of 341 workers, of whom 65 are classed as unskilled laborers. 
During the busy season, which comes in the latter part of the 
summer, the number employed is approximately 400 men. 

Product. Each establishment is engaged in the manufacture of a 
general line of cooking and heating stoves. Several are engaged 
also in the manufacture of cast-iron and sheet iron dry heat fur- 
naces, but only as side lines, constituting a minor part of the 
plant's product. The lines of stoves manufactured include differ- 
ent sizes and different kinds of cooking stoves for burning wood, 
coal, or coke. An extensive trade is carried on with sections of 
the country where there is still an abundance of timber, and 
it is to these sections that the wood burning stove is sold. The 
modern type of stove, however, is provided with a grate which 
may be turned with a crank or lever in such a way as to admit 
burning either wood or coal. A new type of range also is manu- 
factured, which in addition to these advantages, is provided with 
gas burners built into the stove, making it possible to use gas 
if desired. The heating stoves include a full line of the different 
kinds of stoves from the old type box wood stove to the most 
elaborately decorated type of hard coal base burner. 

Characteristics of the industry. The industry is seasonal in 
activity, and it may be noted that the demand for stoves has 
decreased somewhat with the advent of modern cooking and heat- 
ing appliances. So far as sheet metal work is concerned, the 
trade in these establishments is closely related to the same trade 
in other industries involving sheet metal work and workers easily 
shift from one industry to another. 

Occupations. The various employments in the stove factories 
are shown in Table XVII, classified as skilled and unskilled. Ap- 
proximately four-fifths of the workers are classified as skilled and 
one-fifth unskilled. 

Apprenticeship and shop training. An apprenticeship system 
exists which requires four years' shop training. No special effort, 

391 



392 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Table XVII — Employees in Stove Works, Classified by Occupation 
and as Skilled or Unskilled 




Employees 


Occupation 


Total 


Skilled 


Unskilled 


Total 


341 

6 
5 
16 
10 
180 
65 
12 
19 
14 
14 


276 

6 

5 

16 


65 
















10 




170 
65 


10 








12 






19 






14 




14 









however, is made to train these boys in the fundamentals of their 
trade. What they acquire is obtained through observation and 
practice. 

The unskilled labor is largely recruited from other industries, 
not necessarily similar to the stove industry. Men are trained to 
do the particular work assigned to them. The training required, 
however, is not very considerable. No instruction or training 
is given in the establishment, except that given by the superin- 
tendent or other competent workman to the worker with refer- 
ence to the particular job he is to hold. The shops do not draw 
workers directly from the public schools to any considerable extent. 
Not more than fifteen of every one hundred journeymen are between 
the ages of sixteen and twenty. 

Can the schools co-operate? The education of the workers is gen- 
erally deficient, especially in arithmetic ; men lack ability to make 
the computations required by shop practice. 

For these workers, courses might be offered in practical mathe- 
matics in connection with technical instruction in foundry work 
and in sheet metal work, which are perhaps the two most im- 
portant branches of work in the industry in point of numbers of 
men employed, and demand for technical instruction. There is 
no particular demand for drafting, since patterns for sheet metal 
and for foundry work are bought elsewhere by all concerns except 
one. 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 393 

2. Occupational Analyses 

All of these factories, with the exception of one, buy their 
master patterns from outside concerns. From these patterns, 
which are made of wood, the aluminum patterns used in the 
foundry are cast. 

The foundry is perhaps the most important part of a stove 
works in point of productivity, as it is here that the great number 
of large and small parts of the stove or furnace are cast. 

The parts which form the exterior of the stove and some 
other parts as well, after they have been cast, are placed, with 
an innumerable number of "jacks" (i. e., little star-shaped pieces 
of iron) in a cylindrically shaped receptacle set in such a position 
that it revolves about its center horizontally. The jacks, striking 
the surfaces of the castings, rub off all the sand which has adhered 
to them, leaving them perfectly smooth. 

The castings next go to the grinders, who grind off the rough 
edges on emery wheels. All parts which are to be nickel plated 
and used in mounting next go to polishers, who polish the surfaces 
on cylinders covered with emery cloth. These parts are hung, 
with several bars of nickel, in a large tank containing sulphuric 
acid, which dissolves the nickel and deposits it on the surfaces 
to be plated. In order<to obtain a greater amount of deposit upon 
one side of the casting, which is usually necessary since most parts 
are polished upon one side only, duplicate parts are suspended 
in pairs so as to protect as much as possible the surface which 
is to be the dull side of the casting. After these parts are removed, 
they go to the buffers, where the polish is brought out on the 
nickel plating. They go next to the assembler, who drills the 
necessary holes and puts the pieces together. 

The sheet iron department performs such work as is neces- 
sary in making air-tight heaters, warming ovens, stove pipes and 
other sheet iron parts of cooking and heating stoves. The sheet 
metal is cut to patterns bought outside the factory. All rivet 
holes are located from this pattern, and jigs are used which 
locate holes accurately. The pieces are next put through machines 
which bring them to desired shape. In this group are to be found 
rollers, benders, and headers, all of which are hand power 
machines. 

After the assembler finishes the product, it is stored in the 
ware room, where it is kept until an order is received, when it 
passes through the painter's or polisher's hands. 



394 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The men who work in the stove factories are subject to no 
peculiar excessive strains, although the work requires consider- 
able physical strength and endurance. Equipment is supplied 
which obviates some of the heavy lifting. Danger of accident is 
inconsiderable, excepting in the foundry where the dangers are 
those attaching to all foundry work. The stove factories are 
kept in such condition as to make the work as pleasant and health- 
ful as possible for the men. 

While foundry men are rated as skilled laborers by stove 
makers, yet the work can hardly be classed as highly skilled. 
The judgment of the employer as regards degree of skill is based 
largely on the wages paid, the men being the most expensive men 
in their plants and receiving from four to five dollars per day. 

Apprentices start at $5.00 per week and 65 per cent of the 
union scale. The busy season is during the fall and latter part of 
the summer. 



XVII. VEHICLE MANUFACTURING 



1. General Findings 

Importance of the industry. The Hercules Buggy Works is the 
largest single manufacturing plant in the city. Outside of the 
office force, 972 workers are employed, of whom 247, or approxi- 
mately one-fourth, are between 16 and 20 years of age. The 
working force includes from 75 to 100 women and girls, engaged 
in various lines of work in the trimming departments, such as 
sewing and cushion making. This department is not entirely made 
up of women, men being engaged in the heavy work of the depart- 
ment. 

Product. This company is engaged in the manufacture of a 
complete line of buggies and carriages, and a general line of carts 
and road wagons. It manufactures, also, a large line of commer- 
cial wagons, including various types of delivery wagons. A 
type of commercial bed also is built by this concern for the 
Ford chassis, and has become an important part of the plant's 
product. This part of the plant is not connected with the Ford 
automobile plant in any way, and the work is entirely independent 
of that concern. With the advent of automobile trailers came 
another important addition to the plan's line of product, in the 
form of a two-wheeled trailer, and in the past year the company 
has undertaken the manufacture and marketing of a trailer for 
camping purposes, which is becoming a popular part of the tourist 's 
equipment. 

Standardization of product. All of the products of this industry 
are highly standardized and are produced in large quantities. 

Characteristics of the industry. The industry presents in the 
Evansville establishment all the characteristics of a large indus- 
trial plant, in which the productive processes have been extremely 
simplified by the use of special machinery, and by division of 
labor. 

The firm usually has a slack season in mid-summer, during 
which some men are at work on short hours, and others take a 
vacation or find temporary employment elsewhere. During the 
busy season, employment is steady, and for short periods, at 
least, the factory runs to capacity. 

395 



396 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Specialization of processes. The conditions in this establish- 
ment are favorable for extreme specialization, since the output 
is standardized, and is produced in very large quantities. The 
number of separate employments distinguished in the Survey 
reports is 128. In Table XVIII the employees are classified by 
these employments, and by age, as being under 21, or 21 and 
over. In most branches of the establishment the piecework 
wage system promotes the tendency to specialize iu the processes 
of production. 



Table XVIII — Employees in Vehicle Factory Classified by Occupation 

and by Age 




Employees 


Occupation 


Total 


Under 21 

Years of 

Age 


21 Years 

of Age 
and Over 


Total 


972 

4 
5 
9 
3 

2 

1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 

1 
1 
1 
1 

2 
1 
1 
2 
2 
1 
2 
3 
1 
2 
3 
1 
1 


247 


725 


Spoke department: 

Spoke grading 


4 


Spoke machining 


3 
9 


2 


Spoke sand belting 




Finished spoke graders . 


3 


Spoke drivers 




2 


Wheel facers 




1 


Flange pressers 




1 


Rivet hole drillers 




1 


Rivet drivers 


1 
1 

1 




Machine riveters 




Spoke cutters and tenoners 


1 


Hub Department: 

Hub block reaming 


1 


Hub block turning 




1 


Hub mortisers 




1 


Hub flangers 


1 




Rim Department: 

Rim truckers (to saw) 


2 


Rim stakers 




1 


Rim planers 




1 


Rim graders 


1 


1 


Rim stackers 


2 






1 


Rim rounders 


1 


1 


Rim sanders (roiigh) 


3 






1 


Rim polishers 


2 




Rim drivers (on wheel) 


3 


1 
1 




Screw borers 1 






Summary of Findings as to Industries 



397 



Table XVIII — Employees in Vehicle Factory Classified by Occupation 
and by Age — Continued 



Occupation 



Employees 



Total 



Under 21 

Years of 

of Age 



21 Years 

of Age 
and Over 



Rim Department — Continued: 

Screw drivers 

Screw cutters 



Screw filing and finishing: 

Wheel inspectors 

Wheel stackers 

Wheel preparing 

Wheel primers 



Tire Department: 

Rim sawyers (before truing) . . . 

Tire cutters and punchers 

Tire benders and welders 

Tire re welding and hammering. 

Tire straightening 

Tire drawing on wheels 

Tire shrinking 

Tire trueing 

Drilling (for felloe plate) 

Tire hold countersinking 

Tire bolt boring 

Tire bolt driving 

Nut and washer starters 

Running up nuts 

Tire bolt cutters 

Felloe plate hammers 

Wheel inspectors 

Wheel repairing 

Tire department, laborers 

Burr knockers 



Rim Department and Club Spokes: 

Rim strip planing 

Rim strip equalizing 

Rim strip grading 

Rim strip steaming 

Rim strip bending 

Rim strip packing 

Spoke billet equalizing 

Spoke billet turning 

Unloading spoke billets, etc 

Billet grading 

Rim strip counting and grading. . 

Rim strip stacking 

General repair men 



Foremen: 

Yard foremen 

Tire department foremen. 



398 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Table XVIII — Employees in Vehicle Factory Classified by Occupation 
and by Age — Continued 



Occupation 



Employees 



Total 



Under 21 

Years of 

of Age 



21 Years 

of Age 
and Over 



Foremen — Continued : 

Inspection department foremen. . 
Spoke and hub machine foremen. 



Body Department: 

Yard men 

Cut-off sawyers 

Rip sawyers 

Planers 

Mitre saws 

Gluers 

Moulder men 

Band sawyers 

Sanders 

Tenoners 

Stickers 

Shapers 

Boring machine 

Mortising machine. . . . 

Resawing 

Bending and steaming, 

Variety bending 

Off-bearers 

Body assembling 

Seat assembling 

Inspectors 



Smith Shop: 

Forgemen 

Punching 

Bending and fitting irons. 

Axle setting 

Gluers and sanders 

Gear builders 



Paint Department: 

Primers 

Sand and putty 

Filler 

Color varnishing 

Rubbing out varnish. . . 
Striping and decorating. 
Finishing 



Trimming Department: 

Cutters 

Pasters 

Sewing machine 

Cushion making. . . . 
Back banging 



24 

10 

12 

8 



43 

36 

4 



8 
14 
39 

3 
10 
38 



13 
39 
13 
51 
18 
25 
20 



1 1 
16 
24 
25 

2S 



23 



18 

26 

2 



7 

10 

32 

3 

9 

35 



11 
37 
13 
42 
16 
23 
20 



5 
12 
20 

18 
19 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 



399 



Table XVIII — Employees in Vehicle Factory Classified by Occupation 

and by Age — Continued 



Occupation 



Employees 





Under 21 


21 Years 


Total 


Years of 


of Age 




Age 


and Over 


13 


6 


7 


5 


1 


4 


8 


4 


4 


31 


19 


12 


5 


1 


4 


15 


9 


6 


57 


25 


32 


65 


6 


59 


15 


1 


14 


20 




20 


1 




1 


4 




4 


4 


2 


2 


2 




2 


2 





2 


5 


1 


4 


1 




1 


2 




2 



Trimming Department — Continued: 

Back making 

Bow dressing 

Head lining and top pads 

Top building 

Top finishing and crushing 

Shaft trimming 

Mounting Department: 

Assembling surries, wagons, buggies, etc 
Crating surries, wagons, buggies, etc. . . . 
Car loading crew 

Stockroom: 

Receiving crew 

Storekeeper 

Storekeeper's assistant 

Commercial Body Department: 

Priming 

Sand and putty 

Filler 

Color varnish 

Rubbing out 

Finishing 



Labor supply. The demand for labor is readily met by drawing 
on the schools, and on industries other than the buggy industry. 
If the worker is steady, he can soon be trained into a productive 
worker. The demand for moulders, machinists, woodworkers and 
upholsterers is certain to increase in the future and difficulty is 
experienced at the present time in obtaining experienced sign 
writers, for painting signs on commercial vehicle beds. The 
industry employs no workers under 16 years of age. 

Shop training. In most cases, the men are trained in the in- 
dustry. Since the working conditions are good and the wages 
fair, little difficulty is experienced in attracting men from the 
city and surrounding territory. These men are engaged at a low 
wage for a few weeks, until they can be trained for special oper- 
ations which require skill in handling materials, but not much 
technical instruction. Some of these boys come from the public 



400 Evans ville Vocational Survey 

schools. The operations are so systematized that each separate 
process requires only a short time to learn, and the piece rate 
wage system stimulates beginners to acquire facility in as short 
a period as possible. They soon become proficient in some one 
process and in two years are earning maximum wages in the 
given employment. By shifting to more intricate processes or 
more complicated machines, they gradually become more experi- 
enced and used to the organization, and increase their earnings. 
Since many of the operations may be learned in a few weeks, and 
even the more difficult ones in one or two years, it is safe to say 
that most of the special training needed can be given in the 
factory. There are few general mechanics employed, and a gen- 
eral apprenticeship system of the usual kind would hardly meet 
the needs of the industry. 

Can the schools co-operate f Most of the young workers in this 
industry need some form of continuation school work which can 
best be given under the terms of an agreement between the em- 
ployer, the employee, and the school. The establishment has 
agreed to furnish eight boys from the several branches of the 
industry, who are to be sent to a part-time day school, and 
trained for special work. It is suggested that most of the school 
instruction bd in shop arithmetic and English, leaving the prac- 
tical training for the factory. Very few processes in this industry 
could be taught in the public schools, but this does not entirely 
relieve the public schools of responsibility in certain directions. 
Few of the workers employed have had sufficient common school 
training to make it possible for them to be advanced to positions 
of responsibility. For the boys and men employed, some definite 
evening school instruction would undoubtedly improve their in- 
dustrial opportunity, although it might not immediately increase 
their efficiency at the machine. It will be difficult to correlate 
school work with the daily employment of the worker, but for 
some particular branches of the industry it should be possible to 
introduce some form of advantageous continuation school work. 

In all departments foremen and assistant foremen are needed 
who must possess the general training provided under the old 
apprenticeship system. This is of importance to the industry. 
For the present the plant must depend on men trained on the job. 
But it should be the constant aim to provide instruction which 
will increase the general and special intelligence of foremen in 
the industry. 






Summary of Findings as to Industries 401 

Occupational Analyses 

Spoke making. Wheel making work is distributed to several 
important departments, including the spoke department, the 
screwing, filing and finishing department, the tire department, 
the spoke turning and seasoning department, and the rim cutting, 
planing, bending, packing, and seasoning department. 

About seventy-five per cent of the spokes used by this concern 
are bought already turned to shape. These spokes are finished 
in the establishment by tenoning, mitreing, throating and sand- 
papering. 

Several machines are necessary to put the spoke in a finished 
condition. The turned spoke, after having been put through the 
drykiln for a period of seven or eight days, passes to the tenon 
and mitre machine, which at one operation cuts the tenon to fit 
into the hub, and the mitre just above this tenon. 

The spoke then passes to the spoke throater, a machine which 
forms the depression with long slanting sides on the two broad 
surfaces of the spoke above the mitres. On the spoke facing 
the machine the tenons are faced on the two opposite sides which 
come in contact with the flanges of the hub. 

The sanding operations follow, the first being performed on 
the broad rough sanding machine — a belt sander which cuts away 
the coarse surface, and leaves the spoke comparatively smooth. 
The spoke then passes to a machine, known as the rough throater, 
which sands the throat. From this machine it passes to the slick 
belt throater, and then to the broad slick sanding machine, also 
a belt sander. The latter machines do the finishing sanding so 
far as it can be done by machine. 

All of these sanding machines are special machines, each 
provided with a special retaining device for the spoke, so con- 
structed as to make it possible to place ten or twelve spokes in 
position at once and then by turning the retainer properly so 
that each spoke in turn is brought in contact with the belt, the 
operation is performed, the loss of time in shifting spokes being 
reduced to a minimum. In fact, the operation is practically 
continuous, since the operator removes the finished spoke and 
puts another in its place during the time required for sanding 
each spoke. 

The spokes are next graded into four grades, on the basis 
of straightness of grain, quality of wood, and length of material, 

26—5543 



402 Evansville Vocational Survey 

which varies in consequence of resawing to eliminate knots, 
checks, or other imperfections in the wood. 

Hub mulling. The wheel hub, as well as the spoke, passes 
through a series of machine processes in acquiring its final shape. 
The piece of stock is first reamed to contain the boxing ; it is then 
put into the lathe, Avhich turns it up to the desired shape on its 
surface, and then into a machine which cuts the mortises into 
which the spokes fit. The two parts of the flange are then pressed 
upon the hub, one on each end, but not entirely to place at the 
first operation. 

Rim making. The rim department receives the straight stock 
from the yard. This is first run over the planer, then cut to de- 
sired length on the cut-off saw, and is next placed in retorts or 
steam boxes and steamed thoroughly preparatory to the bending 
process, which is done in powerful bending machines. The pieces 
are bent so as to form half the circumference of the wheel. A 
strip is nailed across from one end of each bent piece to the other 
and the pieces are fastened together in half dozen lots to prevent 
them from drawing out of shape while the drying process takes 
place. So fastened they are placed in the drykiln, where they 
remain for a period of from ten to twelve days. The dried rims 
go to the wheel room proper, where the checked ends are sawed off, 
the checking of the ends being unavoidable in the drying process. 
The rims are next graded into four grades, having regard to 
the same points as are noted in spoke grading, and in addition, 
uniformity of curvature. When a rim is found to have straight- 
ened at the ends it is put through a bending machine similar to 
a tire roller or bender. Sometimes it is necessary to saw off the 
defective ends and rebend the piece to the necessary shape for 
use in a wheel of smaller circumference than was originally 
intended. 

The rims next pass to the boring machine, where the holes 
which form the mortises for the spokes are bored, and from this 
machine to a kind of planer machine which rounds the inside 
edges of the rim, this operation being a comparatively simple one. 
They are next sanded on the rim rough sander for sanding the 
inner surface, and on the rim side sander for sanding the sides 
of the rims, and on other similar machines provided with finer 
belt surfaces. More manipulative skill is necessary in rim sanding 
than is required in spoke sanding, since the rim pieces are held 
to the belt by hand, and the sense of touch must be well cultivated 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 403 

to do the work to best advantage. The rims are finally passed 
through a machine which treads or backs off the surface upon 
which the tire is to rest. 

Tiring. The first processes in the tire department are cutting 
the tires to length, and punching the holes for the tire bolts. 
These two processes are done on one machine but at two opera- 
tions. The tire is then rolled to shape on a tire roller. It is then 
machine welded. The burrs of the weld are filed off by hand, or 
the rough welded surface of tires flanged for rubber tires, on 
which filing cannot be done to good advantage, is ground off 
smooth. The tire is then reheated at the weld and hammered 
again under a trip hammer to make the surfaces of the weld as 
smooth as possible. 

Assembling the wheel. The parts of the wheel are now ready to 
be assembled. In every department of the establishment conser- 
vation of time and energy is practiced, and this is especially in 
evidence in the wheel department. The machinery is so arranged 
that the parts in passing through the various operations progress 
toward a common point where the assembling takes place. 

The spokes are driven into the hub by a machine known as 
the spoke driver. They are then faced again so as to insure a 
close fit between spokes and flanges. The wheel is then placed 
under a hydraulic press for the purpose of drawing the two parts 
of the flanges which have been set on each end of the hub tightly 
up against the spokes. Holes are now drilled through the hub, 
and are located so that a rivet can be placed between each spoke. 
These rivets are driven to place by hand, and are riveted on 
machines. Frequently after all of this work has been done it 
will be found that a defective spoke has been put into a wheel 
even though a careful inspection of spokes has been made. In 
such an event, this spoke must be removed and replaced by a 
good one. This becomes a hand operation and follows the rivet- 
ing process. 

The wheel now passes to the tenoning machine, where the 
tenons which fit into the rims are cut. This machine is so con- 
structed that the work can be done with great accuracy in the 
least possible time. The wheel is put on an axle and turned by 
an operator so that each spoke in turn comes in contact with a 
shaper which entirely finishes the tenon and does it so rapidly 
that the operator can keep the wheel constantly turning. 

The rims are next put in place, and holes are bored in them, 



404 Evansville Vocational Survey 

one on each side of the spoke. Screws are set and driven to 
place by machine. The points of the screws come through the 
rim. These are cut off by machine and then filed off by hand. 
The wheels are then inspected and repaired when necessary. 

The next operation, that of sawing out and chipping, consists 
of cutting off the spoke tenons which protrude through the mor- 
tise in the rim and would interfere with driving the tire into 
place. This is done by means of electrical machines. The tire, 
after having been heated, is driven to place, and the wheel is 
then put into a hydraulic tire-shrinker, which shrinks the tire 
to place, and at the same time gives the wheel a uniform dish. 
The wheel next passes to the tire-truer, a machine which divides 
equally and uniformly the amount of projection on each side of 
the rim. 

The next operation is that of boring through both tires and 
rim the one or two holes necessary for each of the two felloe 
plates needed for each wheel. All other rim bolt holes were 
bored before the tire was rolled. The holes in the tire are then 
countersunk for the tire bolt head, after which the remaining 
rim bolt holes are bored down through the holes in the tire. The 
tire bolts are now driven to place and the burrs and nuts put on. 
Each of these operations is a hand operation. The nuts are run 
up and the bolts cut off by separate machine operations. The 
wheels are now inspected and repaired when necessary. 

Dipping wheels. The wheel is now given the priming coat of 
paint by dipping, the color being usually a dark gray. For this 
process the wheel is placed on a vertical axle to which power is 
attached, lowered into the paint vat by means of a foot lever, 
raised and caused to revolve rapidly by applying power to the 
axle. This rotary motion throws off instantly the surplus paint, 
which runs back into the paint vat. The wheels are then put into 
a drying-room for about two days, when they are removed and 
sent to the paint department of this factory, or shipped away 
to other concerns which buy their wheels from this factory. 

Rubber tiring. Rubber tires are put on in the paint shop after 
the wheel has been painted and varnished. The rubber tire is 
cut to length and drawn tightly around the wheel by means 
of a lever which grips the ends of the tire by means of wires 
looped around the rubber. The exposed ends of the wire found 
in the center of the rubber are brought in contact with each other 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 405 

and welded by electric welding. The wheels are then turned over 
to the assembling department. 

Body department processes. The body department furnishes the 
beds and seats for the plant's use. These consist principally of 
piano-box beds and seats, carriage beds and seats and commercial 
bodies with seats. Wood is used for the most part, yet many 
of the new buggy beds and seats are made of sheet iron, which 
is an excellent material, because it can be pressed into any shape 
and will retain that shape well, and, because it offers a good 
surface for painting. Many of the commercial beds, especially 
those with a top, and closed at the sides and in the rear, are made 
of sheet iron re-enforced with an oak framing. Poplar is used 
for wood bed and seat surface work. This, too, is re-enforced 
with oak framing. 

The stock comes from the lumber yard to the hands of the 
cut-off sawyers, who saw the material to required lengths. It 
then passes to the rip sawyers, who saw it to desired thickness, 
and is then planed generally on both surfaces. This is usually 
done where the stock is to be resawed into thinner stock. The 
material then passes to one or more machines necessary to obtain 
the finished product. Here are found mitre saws used for sawing 
mitre joints, such as are found at the corners of the beds, and the 
back of the 'seat. There' are moulders and stickers for forming 
the mouldings in the corners of the bed, and bandsaws, used for 
sawing scrollwork and the irregularly shaped pieces of the body 
and back. Mortises and tenons of bed sills and other framework 
are cut on mortise machines and tenon machines, and holes for 
bolts, where parts are bolted together, are bored with power 
boring machines, Ending- machines of all kinds are used in fin- 
ishing the surface for painting. 

Steaming and bending also are done in this department. A type 
of buggy bed is made which has rounded corners, and the pieces 
in this construction must be steamed and bent. Then, too, much 
of the buggy and carriage seat work must be shaped by steaming 
and bending. 

Considerable gluing is done in this department. Some of the 
thin material used in buggy-bed sides and buggy seats is ply- 
work built up in several layers, usually three. This must be glued 
and pressed. All joints are glued even when retained with screws, 
or dowels. 



406 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The assembling work is highly specialized, not only into dif- 
ferent kinds of bed building or seat building, but in the case of 
bed construction, there are men who put together the sills, and 
other men who build on the necessary framework. 

In the case of the seats where carving is done, comparatively 
skillful men are employed. This work is done after the parts 
have been assembled. Patterns are used in laying out the forms, 
after which as much of the waste stock is cut away as possible 
with an electrical shaper, which is brought in contact with the 
surface of the wood. The work then passes to hand carvers who 
finish cutting away the waste, and then to workers who sand the 
work by hand. This work is tedious, and since it does not require 
any skill, it is mostly done by boys. 

The assembled bodies and seats are now inspected and repaired 
when necessary, after which they pass into the hands of the 
prime-coaters. They then go to the drying-room, and after about 
two days pass to the ironers, and later to the painters. From the 
painters they pass into the hands of the upholsterers. 

Work on poles, shafts, and axle beds. Poles and shafts are 
bought finished in prime coat of a concern in the city. Axle beds 
and the wood piece upon which the front spring rests also are 
purchased in prime coat from a local concern. 

Smith shopwork. Most of the hardware used by this factory 
such as buggy springs, gear braces, axles and bed braces, is pur- 
chased in the form in which it is used. The bought axles are, 
however, bent to desired shape by the factory. This is done in 
poAverful bending machines, after the axle pieces have been heated 
to a cherry red. Many of the smaller pieces of hardware which 
require much machinery in the making are bought to shape. 
Punching and boring machines and power hammers are required 
to finish these pieces. The gear is entirely assembled and is hand 
sanded, after which it is turned over to the painters and var- 
nishers. 

Painting. This concern grinds and mixes its own paint, thus 
insuring its quality, and effecting some economy, since it is cheaper 
for the concern to mix its own paint than it is to buy it already 
mixed. 

The painting is done by dipping and by brushing. Hardware 
is dipped where possible, as are also the wheels. Most of the 
work, however, is brush work. The parts are given one coat of 



Summary of Findings as to Industries 407 

paint over the prime coat and then go to the stripers, who after- 
ward turn them over to the varnishers. The surfaces of beds 
and seat backs are rubbed with pumice stone and water, before 
they are turned over to the varnishers. This makes a piano 
finish. After each painting the parts are dried for about two 
days in a dry-room into which heat is turned when the weather 
is cool. 

Metal beds need some special treatment before they pass into 
the painters' hands, in the way of soldering seams and afterwards 
filing down the solder so as to make a perfectly smooth surface. 

Trimming and finishing. In the trimming and finishing depart- 
ment, side curtains, storm aprons, tops, cushions and lazy backs 
are made. This department has workers engaged in cutting mate- 
rial, such as rubber cloth, drills and leather, which are used in 
cushion and top-making. The materials are marked to patterns, 
and cut by hand or by electric cutters. Holes are punched to 
pattern in the material where buttons are used, as in biscuit 
cushions and biscuit backs. -Women are employed in pasting, 
where materials are to be pasted together, and for the sewing 
required in this work. So far as possible, sewing is done by 
machine. Cushion-making includes sewing springs in place and 
putting in filling. The drill is then put on, and the cushion is 
pressed under a hydraulic press. The covering of leather, leath- 
erette, or cloth, is put on and the cushion is sewed. 

The finishing department processes include back making, back 
hanging, bow dressing, head lining, top building, top crushing 
and finishing, and shaft trimming. Back making is somewhat 
similar to cushion making in the trimming department. Top 
building includes such work as bow dressing, that is, trimming off 
on a shaper the ends of the wood bow which is found in the head 
of the top, so that it will slip easily into the metal part of the bow. 
Here, too, the head of the top is lined and covered, and the back 
curtain and quarters are hung. The top is then crushed and 
transferred to the assembling room. 

Shaft trimming consists of putting on all leather work com- 
monly found on shafts, such as whiffietree straps, tug straps and 
the covering found next to the ferrules, at the end of the shafts. 
The men work in pairs at this work. 

Mounting. All vehicles are assembled in the factory although 
they are dissembled for packing and shipment. This is done 



408 Evansville Vocational Survey 

in order that a careful inspection of the finished product may 
be made before the vehicle leaves the factory. 

The gears are brought from the gear storeroom into the mount- 
ing department. The wheels are put onto the gears by wheelmen. 
Other men put on the bed, still others the top, and so on until the 
vehicle has been assembled. No one man assembles a vehicle. An 
inspector then passes on the product, after which it is passed to 
the ground floor, where it is torn down and crated for shipment. 
Before it is torn down, however, another inspector passes on the 
product to make doubly sure that no part has been left off. After 
the vehicles are crated they weigh them and load them into cars. 



XVIII. GARDENING AND GENERAL AGRICULTURE 



The spread of agricultural education throughout the United 
States has been, as is well known, very rapid, and vocational 
training is already more firmly established in agriculture than it 
is in industrial lines. 

In Evansville there is a large field for industrial education, 
and the opportunities for developing courses in agriculture are 
in some respects exceptional. A rich farming community sur- 
rounds the city, lying within easy reach of the city schools. Many 
of the rural schools, in fact, send boys and girls to the Evansville 
High School, which, as has been noted, is the only high school in 
the county. 

Agriculture in the county is undergoing a change. Stock- 
raising, dairy-farming and truck-gardening are increasing in im- 
portance; less corn and wheat are grown and more clover and 
alfalfa. More small fruits and vegetables are raised and marketed 
each year. 

After an investigation conducted by the Survey, it was found 
that fifty-eight boys now in the Junior and Senior High Schools 
desired to take a course in agriculture. Most of these pupils now 
live in the city. In some instances, their parents own rural 
property. With many of the boys, their interest is due to a 
personal choice of farming as a vocation. Of these pupils thirteen 
will be in the eighth grade, twenty-two in the ninth grade, eight 
in the tenth, and thirteen in the eleventh grade. 

There is, also, a demand from the colored population of the 
city for instruction in agriculture, including vocational garden- 
ing. Names of prospective pupils have been handed in for such 
a course to be given in the colored vocational center. m 

The State Department of Public Instruction has a deputy in 
charge of agricultural instruction, and he is constantly in touch 
with each school in the state which has organized such work. 
The state school of agriculture at Purdue prepares teachers of 
agriculture, and is engaged in such agricultural extension work 
as i's needed to co-operate with local authorities in building up 
public school work. 

It would seem advisable, if the arrangement can be made, that 
the school authorities of Evansville should immediately co-operate 
with the state department in the selection of a teacher of agri- 

409 



410 Evansville Vocational Survey 

culture to be employed for twelve months in the year, who shall 
proceed at once to organize from the pupils who have selected 
agriculture, a department of agriculture in the day vocational 
school. This instructor should have an opportunity to advise 
with the director of vocational education, if such a director is 
appointed, as to the necessary equipment, and should proceed to 
secure options on vacant lots and other land for the use of the 
school. 

It will not be possible to take into the classes all the white 
pupils who have applied.* Not more than thirty or forty boys 
can be taught by one instructor, and they should spend at least 
half of each school day in practical field and laboratory work. 
The remainder of the school day can be used for instruction in 
farm mechanics, English, mathematics and history. 

The instructor in agriculture should co-operate with the county 
agent in every way possible. Without doubt, there will be courses 
in agriculture in the rural schools, which will prepare pupils for 
the high school course in agriculture proposed for Evansville. 



PART VI 
SUMMARY OF FINDINGS AS TO SCHOOLS 



1. Statistics of Enrollment, Withdrawals and Issue of 
Permits to Work 

Enrollment in the public schools, 1909-1916. The number of 
children enrolled in the public schools of Evansville is shown in 
Table I by grades for each of the seven school years, 1909-1916. 
These statistics have been compiled by agents of the Survey from the 
individual records contained in the "blue book." 

The school records indicate for the year, 1915-1916, a total en- 
rollment in the public schools of 10,343 children, of whom 9,372 
were in grades 1 to 8 inclusive ; and 971 in the high school grades, 
9 to 12. 

In this year there were 320 fewer children in the fourth grade 
than in the third; 373 fewer children in the sixth than in the 
fifth ; and 318 fewer children in the eighth than in the seventh ; and 
182 fewer in the ninth than in the eighth. 

The enrollment in the first year of the high school (the ninth 
grade) was 318 ; in the second year, 279, in the third year 186, and 
in the fourth year, 188. This high school enrollment includes 
pupils who came in to the Evansville High School from surround- 
ing country districts, the Evansville High School being the only 
high school located in the county. 

These figures indicate clearly that many children do not ad- 
vance in the Evansville schools beyond the third, fourth or fifth 
grades. 

Withdraivals from grades 4 to 12, inclusive. In the period from 
September 1, 1915, to April 15, 1916, 517 children withdrew from 
grades 4 to 12 in the Evansville public schools. The reason for 
withdrawal was "removal from the city" in 184 cases; 90 left the 
schools to go to work ; 54 withdrew on account of indifference ; 49 
because of ill health ; 18 because of lack of ability ; 13 because of 
parents' ill health; 12 to attend school elsewhere; 7 to help at 
home ; 7 because school was too expensive ; 4 to attend a commer- 
cial school; 13 for other specific reasons; and 67 for reasons not 
specified. The number leaving for these specified causes is shown 
in Table II. 

411 



412 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Table I — Enrollment in the Evansville Public Schools— 1909-1916 







Children Enrolled in the Public Schools 




Grade 


1909- 
1910 


1910- 
1911 


1911- 
1912 


1912- 
1913 


1913- 
1914 


1914- 
1915 


1915- 
1916 




Number 


Total 

First 


7,939 

1,251 

1,079 

1,083 

1,004 

924 

720 

589 

495 

322 

184 

179 

109 


8,373 

1,441 

1,061 

1,141 

1,048 

929 

771 

567 

519 

315 

276 

150 

155 


8,642 

1,400 

1,184 

1,142 

1,085 

984 

814 

631 

. 485 

326 

279 

165 

147 


8,801 

1,398 

1,214 

1,134 

1,066 

1,022 

806 

678 

544 

346 

273 

212 

108 


9,667 

1,784 

1,284 

1,368 

1,119 

1,002 

858 

707 

500 

357 

297 

206 

185 


9,690 

1,707 

1,423 

1,223 

1,189 

988 

897 

694 

568 

258 

292 

177 

274 


10,343 

1,705 


Second 


1,546 


Third 


1,558 


Fourth 


1,238 


Fifth 


1,190 


Sixth 


817 


Seventh 

Eighth 


818 
500 


Ninth 


318 


Tenth 


279 


Eleventh 

Twelfth 


186 

188 






Increa 


se (+) Decrease (— 


-) by Gra 


des 




First 
















Second 


— 172 
+4 

—79 

—79 
—204 
—131 

—94 

—173 

—138 

—5 

—70 


—380 

+80 

—93 

—119 

—158 

— 204 

—58 

— 204 

—39 

—126 

+ 5 


—216 
— 42 
—57 
—101 
—170 
—183 
— 146 
—159 

— 114 

—18 


—184 

—80 

—68 

— 44 

— 216 

— 128 

— 132 

— 198 

—73 

— 61 

— 104 


—500 

—216 

—249 

—117 

— 144 

—151 

— 207 

— 143 

—60 

— 91 

—21 


—285 
—200 

—34 
— 201 

—91 
— 203 
— 226 
—310 

+ 34 
—115 

+ 93 


— 159 


Third 


+ 12 


Fourth 


— 320 


Fifth 


— 48 


Sixth 


— 373 


Seventh 

Eighth 


+ 1 
— 318 


Ninth 


—182 


Tenth 


—37 


Eleventh 

Twelfth 


—93 

+ 2 






Number 


in Each Grade per 


100 in Gr 


ade I 




First 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 

Sixth 


100 
86 
87 
80 
74 
58 
47 
60 
26 
15 
14 
9 


100 
74 
79 
73 
65 
54 
39 
36 
22 
19 
10 
11 


100 
85 
82 
78 
70 
58 
45 
37 
24 
20 
12 
11 


100 
87 
81 
76 
73 
58 
48 
39 
25 
20 
15 
8 


100 
72 
77 
63 
56 
48 
40 
28 
20 
17 
12 
10 


100 
84 
72 
70 
58 
53 
41 
33 
15 
17 
10 
16 


100 
91 
92 
73 

70 

48 


Seventh 

Eighth 


48 
30 


Ninth 


19 


Tenth 

Eleventh 

Twelfth 


16 
11 
11 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 



413 



Of the 517 children who withdrew, 327 or less than two- 
thirds had been regular in attendance, while 172 or more than 
one-third had been irregular. 



Table II — Cause of Withdrawal and Irregularity of Attendance of 
Children who Withdrew from Grades 4 to 12— September 
1, 1915 to April 15, 1916 



Cause of Withdrawal and Irregularity 
op Attendance 



Children Who Withdrew From School 



Total 



Boy 



Girl 



Total 

Cause of Withdrawal 

Health 

Attending commercial school. . . 

Conflict with teacher 

Expense 

Help needed at home 

Indifference 

Lack of ability 

Expelled 

Parent's health 

Parent's objection to school 

Removal from city 

Going to work 

Attending school elsewhere 

Fear of vaccination 

Moral delinquency 

Distance to school 

No record 

Attendance 

Regualr 

Irregular 

No record 



517 



49 
4 

2 
7 
7 

54 

18 

3 

13 

3 

184 

90 

12 

1 
1 

2 
67 



327 

172 

18 



286 



14 
2 
1 
3 
1 

33 
11 

2 
4 

1 
107 

70 



231 



35 

2 

1 



20 

6 



1 

1 
29 



191 

87 
8 



1 
38 



136 
85 
10 



The reasons given by the children in each case cannot be ac- 
cepted as being particularly significant. It is undoubtedly true, 
for example, that retardation if not a prime cause of withdrawal is, 
at least, a contributory cause to a greater extent than would appear 
from Table II, since retardation is a common characteristic of 
children who withdrew. 

The 517 children who withdrew from grades four to twelve 
are classified by sex, grade, and age in Table III, which gives for 
each grade the number and the percentage retarded for these chil- 
dren. In making this classification children who withdrew on 



414 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



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Summary of Findings as to Schools 415 

account of removal from city, or to enter other schools should per- 
haps have been eliminated. This has not been done, but it is be- 
lieved that the general significance of the figures is not seriously 
impaired by retaining them in the group. 

Of the 286 boys who withdrew from these grades, 169, or 56.3% 
were retarded ; and of the 233 girls, 119 or 46.4% were retarded. Of 
the 61 children who withdrew from grade six, 45 were retarded; 
and of the 77 who withdrew from grade seven, 62 were retarded. 

Of the 517 children who withdrew, 392 withdrew from grades 
4 to 8, and 125 from the high school grades, 9 to 12. 

It is shown by later tables that the children who go out from the 
schools before completing the grammar grades, are found drifting 
from one industry to another in the unskilled, low-wage-yieldiug 
employments, and that they tend to remain permanently in the ranks 
of unskilled labor. 

In Table IV the children who withdrew from grades four 
to twelve during the period under review are classified as being 
of normal age, accelerated, or retarded, at the time of withdrawal 
from school, and the amount of retardation is shown in years. 

Of these children 152 were of normal age, 60 were accelerated 
and 287 were retarded from 1 to 7 years — age at time of with- 
drawal being unknown in the case of 12 children. 

Of the 287 retarded children, 136 were retarded one year, 77 
were retarded two years, 44 were retarded three years; 19 four 
years, 9 five years, 1 six years and 1 seven years. Of the 77 
children who Avithdrew from the seventh grade 62 were retarded. 

Since more than one-half of the children who withdrew were 
retarded one or more years, it seems fair to assume that whatever 
reason may have been given by the child to the authorities, the 
real cause of withdrawal was, in a large number of cases, discour- 
agement on the part of the child. 

In the case of these children, as in the case of the permit 
children, considered in a subsequent section, the need of special 
provision is apparent. This special provision must embrace the 
organization of classes in which the instruction is adapted to the 
practical needs, and to the capacities of the children. The oppor- 
tunity to undertake prevocational and vocational courses in these 
grades will, it is believed, hold many of the children in school 
several years. 



416 



Evansville Vocational Survey 










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Summary of Findings as to Schools 



417 



School permit-workers. — Individual schedules were secured from 
243 boys and girls who were granted work permits between May 
1, 1915, and May 1, 1916. The schedules together with the school 
records furnish valuable data which have been tabulated for this 
Report. 

Information was secured on the following points : Place of 
birth, place of attending school last and character of school last 
attended; age; age and grade at time of leaving school; whether 
or not as regards age and grade the child was accelerated or 
retarded in his or her school course and the extent ; number of 
years lost by retarded children; the father's occupation; favorite 
school subjects ; the reasons for leaving school ; whether or not there 
is a desire for further education ; unemployment at date of inquiry ; 
character of employment; length of time in present employment; 
length of time unemployed since leaving school; and the length 
of time out of school. 

As is pointed out elsewhere the data collected by agents of 
the Survey are not entirely consistent with the data of record in 
the school offices, as regards age and grade of permit-workers, 
and it has been necessary to revise these records. The age and 
grade tables following are based upon the revised school records. 

All of the 243 permit-workers, of whom 196 were boys and 
47 were girls, were native ; 93, or nearly two-fifths of them, were 
born in Evansville ; 48, or approximately one-fifth, in Indiana out- 
side of Evansville; 78, or nearly one-third, in Kentucky; and 
18 in other states — the birthplace of 6 being unknown. This 
gives 58.3 per cent as the proportion reported born in Indiana, 
and 39.4 per cent as the proportion reported born outside of the 
state. In other words, a large proportion of these boys are native 
Indianians. This classification of the permit-workers is shown 
in Table V. 

Table V — Place of Birth Reported by 243 School Permit-Workers 





School Permit- Workers 


Place of Birth 


Total 


Boy 


Girl 




243 
93 

48 
78 
18 


196 
81 
36 
57 
16 




47 




12 




12 




21 


Other States 


2 


No record 


6 6 




27—5543 











418 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



The place of attending school last is shown in Table VI, from 
which it appears that 194 of the 243 workers had attended school 
last in Evansville, and 13 in Indiana outside of Evansville; 27 
had attended school last in other states, and for 9 no report was 
made of place in which school had been attended last. 



Table VI — Place of Attending School Last as Reported by School 

Permit- Workers 





School Permit- Workers 


Place of Attending School Last 


Total 


Boy 


Girl 


Total 

Evansville 


243 

194 

13 

22 

5 

9 


196 

157 

11 

17 

3 

8 


47 
37 


Elsewhere in Indiana 


2 


Kentucky 


5 


Other States 


2 


No report 


1 



The character of the school last attended is shown in Table 
VII. In 191 cases the school last attended was a public school, 
and in 40 cases a parochial school; the no-report cases for this 
inquiry numbered 12. 



Table VII — Character of SchoorAttended Last as Reported by School 

Permit- Workers 





School Permit-Workers 


Character of School Attended Last 


Total 


Boy 


Girl 


Total 

Public School 


243 

191 
40 
12 


196 

152 
34 
10 


47 
39 


Parochial School 


6 


No report 


2 



Age at time of leaving school is shown in Table VIII. Of 
the total number of permit-workers 167 left school at the age of 
14 or 15 years, and 76 were 16 years of age or older. In the 
case of the older boys and girls permits were not required by 
law, but seem to have been given as certificates of age. 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 419 

Table VIII — Age of Permit-Workers at Time of Leaving School 





Permit-Workers 


Age at Time of Leaving School 


Total 


Boy 


Girl 


Total 

14 years 


243 

93 

74 
50 
15 

7 


196 

69 
59 
45 
13 

7 


47 
24 


15 years 

1 6 years 


15 
5 


17 years 


2 


18 years 






20 years 


1 
3 


1 
2 




No report 


1 



In. Table IX the permit-workers are classified according to 
grade in which they were enrolled at the time of leaving school. 
In the case of 24 of these children no record of grades was found. 
Only 71 reported that they had entered the seventh or a higher 
grade. One had not gone beyond the second grade ; 8 were en- 
rolled in the third grade; 12 in the fourth; 72 in the fifth and 
55 in the sixth. Only. 3 had entered the high school — two being 
in the first year of the high school course, and 1 in the second 
year. For these 243 workers Grade V is the grade most frequently 
reported. 



Table IX — Grade Enrolled in at Time of Leaving School as Reported 
by School Permit-Workers 





School Permit-Workers 


Ghade 


Total 


Boy 


Girl 


Total 

Second 


243 

1 

8 

12 

72 

55 

46 

22 

2 

1 

24 


196 

1 

8 

8 

56 

49 

35 

20 

2 

1 

L6 


47 


Third 




Fourth 


4 


Fifth 

Sixth 

Seventh 

Eighth 


16 
6 

11 
2 


Ninth 




Tenth 




No record 


8 



420 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



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1 i 

H £ 


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5 P 


3 
5 

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S 

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SO 

5 

j 

5 

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Summary of Findings as to Schools 



421 



The age and grade of the permit-workers at the time of leaving 
school, and the number retarded, is shown in Table X. All of the 
children who left grades 2, 3 and 4 were retarded; 71 of the 72 
children who left grade 5; 54 of the 55 who left grade 6; all of 
the 46 children who left grade 7 ; and 15 of the 22 who left grade 
8 were retarded. 

It should be noted that in the case of the 21 children who left 
school on permits to work before completion of the fifth grade, the 
provisions of the Indiana state law regarding compulsory school 
attendance seems to have been disregarded. 

The amount of retardation of these permit-workers is sum- 
marized in Table XI. Thirty of the 243 workers were retarded 
one year; 41 were retarded two years; 54 three years; 37 four 
years ; 28 five years ; 9 six years ; 4 seven years ; 4 eight years ; 
the status as regards retardation being unknown in the case of 
26 workers. Only 9 workers were of normal age, and only 1 was 
accelerated. 



Table XI — Acceleration and Retardation of School Permit-Workers 
who Withdrew from School May 1, 1915 to April 30, 
1916, by Grades 





School Permit-Workers 


Gbade 


Total 


Not Retarded 


Retarded 






Total 


Nor- 
mal 
Age 


Accel. 

1 
Year 


Total 


Year 


2 

Years 


3 

Years 


4 
Years 


5 
Years 


6 
Years 


7 
Years 


8 
Years 


Age 
Un- 
known 


Total 


243 

8 
12 

72 
55 
46 
22 
2 

24 


10 


9 


- 


207 

8 
12 
71 
54 
46 
15 


30 


41 


54 


37 


28 


9 


4 


4 

1 
2 
1 


26 


Third... 
















2 
3 
19 
3 
1 


3 
3 
3 


2 




Fourth 














4 

18 

10 

4 

1 




Fifth 












29 
18 

6 

1 


I 


Sixth 








21 
9 


23 
14 
4 


1 


















Eighth 

Ninth 


7 
2 
1 


7 
2 






















Tenth . 


...!.. 






















Unknown 




















24 



In Table XII the number of years lost by retardation, and the 
average number of years retarded per retarded child is shown. 
The 207 retarded permit-workers were retarded in the aggregate 676 



422 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



years, or on the average 3.3 years per retarded child. The average 
number of years retarded per child for the 8 children who had 
completed the third grade was 6.4; for the 12 children who had 
completed the fourth grade 5.3 ; and for the 71 children who had 
completed the fifth grade 4 years. 



Table XII — Years Lost by Retarded Boys and Girls to 'Whom Permits 
Were Issued May 1, 1915, to April 30, 1916, With 
Average per Retarded Child 





Retarded Permit Boys 


and Girls 


Grade 


Number 


Years Lost by Retardation 




Number 


Average per 

Retarded 

Child 


Total 

Second 

Third 

Fourth 

Fifth 


207 

8 
12 
71 
54 
46 
15 


676 

8 
51 
64 
286 
155 
88 
24 


3.3 

8.0 

6.4 
5.3 
4 


Sixth 

Seventh 

Eighth 


2.9 
1.9 
1.6 



The occupations of the fathers, so far as ascertainable, are 
given in Table XIII. In 81 cases no records of the fathers' occu- 
pations were found, and the occupations specified for the remain- 
ing 162 cases do not in themselves indicate as probable any general 
condition of poverty in the families to which the permit-workers 
belonged. 

Table XIV classifies these permit boys and girls according 
to number of brothers and sisters at work and in school. The 
table shows that 140 of the 243 permit-workers had brothers and 
sisters at work, and 126 had brothers and sisters in school. In 
72 cases one brother or sister was at work, in 37 cases two broth- 
ers or sisters were at work, in 31 cases three or more brothers or 
sisters were at work and in 40 cases the number of brothers and 
sisters was not reported. In 77 cases there were no brothers or 
sisters attending school; in 43 cases one brother or sister was in 
school, in 52 cases two brothers or sisters were in school, in 31 
cases three or more brothers or sisters were in school and in 40 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 



423 



Table XIII — Occupation of Father Reported by School Permi 

Workers 





School Permit-Workers 


Occupation of Father 


Total 


Boy 


Girl 


Total 


243 

6 
33 

1 
1 
1 
2 

13 
4 
3 
1 
5 
9 
6 
3 

14 
1 
8 
1 
2 
2 
2 
3 
1 
2 
1 
2 
4 
1 
2 
4 
1 
2 
3 
1 
1 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 

81 


196 

5 

26 
1 
1 
1 
2 

10 
2 
2 

3 

7 
6 
3 
11 
1 
7 
1 
1 
2 
2 
3 
1 
2 
1 
2 
4 
1 
2 
3 
1 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
2 
1 
1 


47 




1 




7 


Sawyer 


Chairmaker 




Bank clerk 




Car repairer 






3 
2 






1 


Sheet metal worker. 






2 




2 


Foreman 




Brewery worker 






3 


Contractor 






1 


Baker 




Night watchman 


1 


Shipping clerk 








Tool maker 








Preacher 








Blacksmith 








Saw filer 








Barkeeper 


1 






Chef 






1 


Janitor 








Tinner 






1 


Merchant 




Bricklayer 




Miller 


1 


Peddler 




2 


Pipefitter 




1 






3 


Cobbler 




1 






1 


Surveyor 




1 


No record 


70 


11 



424 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



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OS 



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fl 

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3 



O o 

1-9 



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C0O5Xit^^00(N'* 

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Summary of Findings as to Schools 



425 



cases the number of brothers and sisters in school was not re- 
ported. In the table similar data are shown separately for boys 
and for girls, classified by single years of age. Of the 38 boys, 
for example, 14 years of age at work on permits, 22 reported 
brothers and sisters at work and 19 reported brothers or sisters 
attending school. 

Permit-workers are classified in Table XV according to cause 
assigned by them for leaving school. It would seem probable 
from the reports as tabulated that in the case of 112 of the 243 
permit-workers, going to work was a consequence of some eco- 
nomic pressure, and that in these cases the child went to work 
either to support himself or to help support his family. On the 
other hand, 52 seem to have gone to work not in consequence 
of any pressure, but because they wanted to, or because they 
disliked school. Sixteen of these workers worked during vacation 
only and returned to school when school opened, 6 moved out 
of the city, 16 dropped out because of poor health, or discourage- 
ment because of failure in school, 2 were expelled, 2 had finished 
the eighth grade and did not want to go to high school, and 



Table XV — Cause of Leaving School as Reported by School Permit- 
Workers 





School Permit-Workers 


Cause of Leaving School 


Total 


Boy 


Girl 


Total 


243 

33 

45 
30 
20 
32 
5 
2 

2 
2 
3 
3 
1 
1 
1 
6 
6 
16 
35 


196 

33 

28 
26 
16 
26 
2 
1 

1 

2 

1 


47 


Had to go to work 




Needed to help family 


17 


Had to help mother 


4 


Wanted to go to work 


4 


Did not like school 

Sickness 


6 
3 


Did not; like teacher 


1 


Had finished 8th grade, did not want high 
school 


1 


Injured; fell behind. . . 




Could not afford school 


2 


Weak eyes 


3 


Expelled from school . . 


1 

1 

1 

5 

6 
14 
32 ' 




Had to go to work, as parents were dead . . 




Sent to reform school . . 




Fell behind in studies 


1 


Moved out of city . . 




Returned to school. . 


2 


No record 


3 



426 Evansville Vocational Survey 

2 stopped because they did not like their teachers. No record 
was made of cause of leaving school in 35 cases. 

From the very fact that 140 of the 243 permit-workers had 
brothers and sisters at work, and that the fathers' occupations in 
most cases were one which gives reasonable economic reward, it 
seems entirely improbable that 112, or nearly one-half of them, 
were forced by economic pressure to go to work. 

Very frequently, as is well known, the child prefers to go to 
work because of a desire for more spending money, and when 
asked why he went to work, he replies, "I had to." In other 
cases the parents use a child as a source of income, although not 
forced to do so by economic pressure. 

As shown in Table XVII, some 40 different employments, or 
occupations, were recorded for 178 permit-workers; no record 
of the nature of their employment being found in the case of 65 
of these workers. Grouping the specific employments by indus- 
tries the workers were distributed by industries as shown in Table 
XVI. 

Table XVI — Permit-workers Grouped by Industries in 
Whieh Employed 

Industry Number of Workers 

Woodworking industries 91 

Commercial service 23 

Cottonmill operators 13 

Pottery workers 10 

Broom factory workers 7 

Cigarmakers 6 

Laundry workers 5 

Miscellaneous 23 

No record 65 

Total 243 

More than one-half of the workers reporting occupations had 
entered some one of the woodworking industries, which constitute 
an important group of industries in Evansville. In this group 
are included furniture workers, offbearers, gluers, machine oper- 
ators, cabinet makers, basket workers, finishers, carpenters, hex 
makers, general helpers and machine helpers. Commercial service, 
in which 23 were employed, covers delivery boys, clerks, venders, 
messenger boys and stenographers. The 23 workers grouped 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 427 

under the heading miscellaneous includes laborers, mattress work- 
ers, painters, paperhangers, train crew workers, brewery workers, 
farmers, elevator boys, bottle-cap workers, seamstresses and those 
who remained at home. Of the 13 cottonmill operatives, 9 were 
spinners. There were 10 pottery workers, 7 broom factory work- 
ers, including the trimmers and sorters, 6 cigar makers, including 
the bunch makers, rollers and banders, and 5 laundry workers. 

To each permit-worker the following inquiries were proposed : 
(1) "Would you like to continue your education or fit yourself 
better for your present or future work? (2) Do you feel the 
need of further work in regular school subjects?" They were 
asked further to specify the subjects which they felt to be suit- 
able to their needs. To the first inquiry 111 answered "yes," 
and 67 "no;" 65 did not answer. To the second inquiry 89 
answered "yes," and 85 "no;" 69 did not answer. As preferred 
subjects, 41 specified arithmetic, 16 history, 12 geography, 12 
manual training and others commercial work, grammar, cooking, 
some trade, spelling, sewing and physiology and hygiene, while 
21 stated that they wanted all subjects. 

When these children, having been out of school only one year 
or less, say that they need more school training in regular school 
subjects, it means that they want and need courses in which the 
instruction, whatever the subject, is given a practical bearing 
upon their employment. Commonly it is true that the need for 
such instruction has been discovered by them, through their inca- 
pacity to fulfill certain simple requirements of their occupation — 
the requirement, for example, that they shall keep accurate ac- 
counts of their time, of material used or of output, and that 
they shall prepare accurate and legible daily reports of their 
work. 

An examination of the reports secured by the Survey agents 
from the permit-workers revealed the fact that in many cases the 
child had not entered upon an industrial wage-earning employ- 
ment immediately upon leaving school. In 18 cases the time 
unemployed after leaving school before securing a permit to work 
amounted to from three to six months, and in some 40 cases it 
appears to have amounted to more than six months. 

Table XVIII shows whether or not permit-workers were em- 
ployed at the time of inquiry. Of the 243, only 190 (150 boys 
and 40 girls) reported that they were employed; 14 (11 boys and 
3 girls) reported that they were not employed; and 39 (35 boys 



428 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



and 4 girls) made no report on this question. It thus appears 
that a very small number of these workers were unemployed at 
the time of this inquiry, but it would appear from the reports, 
although the data are not sufficiently accurate for tabulation, 

Table XVII — Present Occupation Reported_by School Permit- 
Workers 



Occupation 



School Permit- Workers 



Total 



Boy 



Girl 



Total 

Laborer 

Broom trimmer 

Pottery workers 

Delivery boy 

Mattress worker 

Furniture workers 

Off-bearer 

Machine operator 

Gluer 

Cabinet maker „ 

General helper 

Painter 

Clerk 

Messenger boy 

Basket workers 

Finisher. 

Paperhanger 

Carpenter work 

Trained crew caller 

Brewery worker 

Farmer 

Venders 

Elevator boy 

Stenographer and bookkeeper. . . . 

Carders 

Flat ironer 

Lining caps in bottle works 

Drawing in cotton mill 

Spinners 

Sewing 

Bunch maker in cigar factory 

Roller in cigar factory 

Weaving 

Box maker 

Broom corn sorter 

Bobbin filler 

Cigar bander 

Clerks 

Mangle feeder 

At home 

Machine helper 

No record* 

♦Two have returned to school 



243 

6 
5 

10 
12 

1 
5 

55 
7 
2 
2 
8 
1 
1 
4 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
4 
1 
1 
1 
4 
2 
1 
9 
6 
1 
4 
1 
2 
2 
1 
1 
1 
1 
2 
5 

05 



196 

6 
5 
10 
12 
1 
5 
55 
7 
2 
2 
8 
1 
1 
4 
1 
3 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
4 
1 



47 



5 

58 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 



429 



that the greater number have lost more or less time by unemploy- 
ment since going to work. It is probably true that the amount 
of unemployment would have been greater had the Survey inquiry 
been made six weeks earlier, since the inquiry was, in fact, made 
at the time of maximum activity in the seasonal industries. 

Table XVIII — Unemployment Reported by School Permit-Workers 



Employment or Unemployment at 
Time of Inquiry 



School Permit- Workers 



Total 



Boy 



Girl 



Total. 



Employed. . . 
Unemployed . 
No report. . . 



243 

190 
14 
39 



196 

150 
11 
35 



47 

40 
3 

4 



The number of jobs held since leaving school, for those who 
had been out of school specified periods, is shown in Table XIX. 
Of the 243 permit-workers, 3 reported that they had held no job, 
123 that they had held one job only, 74 two jobs, 31 three jobs 
and 12 four or more jobs. 

Of the 39 workers who had been out of school less than two 
months 17 reported that they had held two or more jobs; of 
the 26 who had been out of school two to three months 11 
reported two or more jobs ; of the 37 who had been out of school 
3 to 6 months, 16 reported two or more jobs ; of the 55 who had 
been out 6 to 9 months, 33 reported two or more jobs; of the 
58 who had been out 9 to 12 months, 25 reported two or more 
jobs; and of the 19 who had been out one year or more, 15 re- 
ported two or more jobs. 

It is clear from those figures that the amount of drifting is 
very considerable among permit-workers. 

It may be noted that each change of employment for workers 
under 16 years of age should be recorded by the school authori- 
ties in the record of a new permit issued. 

A tabulation made from the unrevised permit blanks, before 
the worker was interviewed, gave results somewhat different from 
those shown in the foregoing tables. In many cases it was found 
that the child had not given his age or grade correctly when 
he received his permit card, and considerable discrepancies as 
regards age and grade developed in the revised record. 



430 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Table XIX — Number of Jobs Held Since Leaving School 
Out of School, as Reported by School Permit- Wor 


and 

kers 


Time 


Time Out of School 


School Permit-Workers who Have Held 
Specified Number of Jobs 




Total 


No 
Job 


One 
Job 


Two 

Jobs 


Three 
Jobs 


4 or 
More 
Jobs 


Total 


243 

39 
26 
37 
55 

58 

19 

9 


3 

1 
1 
1 


123 

22 
15 
20 
21 
32 
4 
9 


74 

14 

8 

8 

26 

13 

5 


31 

3 

8 
5 
9 
5 


12 








2 








2 




3 


One year or more 


5 


No report 





These discrepancies are in themselves significant, since they 
indicate a degree of inaccuracy in the school records regarding 
permit-workers. According to the school record, 103 of these 
workers were 14 years of age at the time of leaving school, the 
number of this age as compiled by the Survey being 93 : the school 
record shows 76 aged 15, and the Survey report 74. According 
to the school records, 62 were 16 years of age. or older; but in 
the Survey reports the number of this age group was 73. The 
discrepancies as regards grade are inconsiderable, but a combin- 
ation of the age and grade as reported to the Survey agents gives 
an amount of retardation quite different from that indicated by 
the school records. The number of workers not retarded was 46, 
according to the school records, and 10, according to the Survey 
reports; the number retarded one year was, according to the 
school records, 42, according to the Survey reports 30 ; the number 
retarded two years was, according to the school records, 51, 
according to the Survey, 41 ; the number retarded three years 
was 43 and 54, respectively, and the number retarded four or 
more years 43 and 82, respectively. The number of no-reports 
of age was 18 on the school records and 26 on the Survey returns. 
Some general conclusions regarding children under 16 years of 
age who leave school to go to work seem warranted by the find- 
ings of the Survey. Of these conclusions perhaps the most impor- 
tant one is that which has already been noted, namely, that the 
records regarding children under 16 and not attending school are 
inaccurate and incomplete, and to this extent it would appear 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 431 

that the requirements of the Indiana law have not entirely been 
regarded. These children take up unskilled employments, and 
shift about from one employment to another, but no complete 
record of their experience as wage-earners is kept by the school 
authorities. Employers do not feel under necessity of reporting 
cases of employment to the school authorities, nor have the school 
authorities made very strenuous efforts to secure such reports. 
The penalties fixed by law have not been imposed upon those who 
have become liable under the law, either as regards truant chil- 
dren, parents or employees, or as regards officers charged with 
enforcement of the law. Many of these children seem to have 
left school, not under stress of economic pressure, but rather from 
mere indifference, or preference, or because parents did not choose 
to keep them in school. In many cases it would appear that the 
child left school and did not immediately enter upon any wage- 
earning employment, and generally the amount of unemployment, 
as well as of drifting is considerable. 

II. Manual Training for White Boys in the High School 

General findings. The Evansville High School manual training 
course for white boys offers the following subjects : Elementary 
woodworking, wood turning, sheet metal work, pattern making, 
forge shop work, machine shop work and mechanical drawing. 
Two years of this work in the eighth and ninth grades are pre- 
scribed work in these grades, while the remainder is elective. 
Most of the boys taking any part of the last three years choose 
manual training as a "constant" and take the full course. 

In the eighth grade a total of 220 boys have been taking wood- 
work, while the enrollment in the last four grades has reached 
230 for the year. Seventy-eight boys have selected manual training 
as a "constant." During the past five years the enrollment in the 
last four grades has increased over 100 per cent. 

In the eighth grade the periods are forty minutes a day; 
classes meet five times a week. Three lessons are given in wood- 
working and two in mechanical drawing. 

In the four years of the high school course one double period 
each day is spent in the shops and drafting rooms, approximately 
equal time being given to the two lines of work. 

Including the director who has taught four periods each day 
the number of instructors has been eight, one of whom taught 
only half time in the high school. 



432 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The department has outgrown the equipment provided, and 
for some time the classes have been limited to from 12 to 16 pupils 
in several lines of work, owing to the limited number of machines, 
benches and forges provided. By increasing the number in each 
class economy in teaching would be effected. Some departments 
in this school have been overequipped, and others have had to 
wait for much-needed machinery. 

The introduction of evening school work for men has created 
a new demand upon the equipment of the machine shop, and 
during the past year the increase in size of high school classes 
has filled every department. 

Materials and supplies for all departments are purchased by 
the school. In certain cases boys are expected to pay for materials 
used when the product is taken home. In most classes the work 
done by the boys for the school pays for the material, and work 
of this kind is often undertaken by the manual training depart- 
ment. 

Courses are planned by the head of the department with the 
co-operation of the teachers. Every effort is made to give variety 
to the work by the introduction of new projects. In the machine 
shop the school attempts to build some of its own equipment and 
three lathes are partly completed and a large number of small 
tools, such as reamers, arbors, jigs and fixtures, are constantly 
being added to the school outfit. 

For two years past the shops of the department have been 
used by the school in the building of new equipment during the 
summer. About $5,000 worth of new benches, cabinets for tools, 
tables for sewing, stools, and drafting tables have been built. No 
outside work is done for pay, but the manual training department 
tries to make itself useful to every other school department. 
Boys are given summer employment, and teachers are helped to 
increase their yearly income. 

In quite a number of instances the school has been able to 
provide graduates with positions in drafting rooms and shops. 
An increasing number of employers are looking to the department 
for apprentices, and it is to be hoped that in time the school may 
furnish most of the boys who go into industry. 

The aim of the courses given is to make boys capable of using 
a wide variety of small tools and some machinery with a certain 
degree of skill. 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 433 

Equipment. In the wood shops, benches and small tools are 
provided with general tools for hand work of the usual type. A 
universal saw' and a 16-inch jointer are provided, and in one of 
the shops an oilstone grinder is placed. The saw and the grinder 
are driven by individual motors. Three rooms are provided for 
this work, two of them being basement rooms and not very well 
lighted. For wood-turning seventeen lathes of an old pattern 
are in use, some of them being badly worn. 

In the sheet-metal shop an equipment of up-to-date, hand- 
operated machines is provided, and a set of four gas-heated fur- 
naces for heating soldering irons. Enough small tools are pro- 
vided to allow 12 to 15 boys to work at one time. 

The foundry equipment consists of benches and flasks with 
sets of molders' tools for 12 boys at a time. A home-made brass- 
melting furnace and core oven have been built by the boys. 

The forge shop is equipped with thirteen down-draft forges 
with blower and exhaust fan with sufficient small tools for a 
class of thirteen boys. A larger equipment is needed to make 
the investment pay. The lighting of this room is unsatisfactory. 

In the pattern shop six motor-head lathes, a bandsaw, a tool- 
grinder, fourteen benches and an equipment of small tools provide 
an outfit for a class of about 16 boys. 

In the machine shop firstclass equipment of modern machine 
tools, including nine lathes, a planer, milling-machine, drill-press, 
universal grinder, wet emery, power hacksaw and sensitive drill, 
with a good outfit of small tools and gauges, are provided. Not 
over 15 boys can be accommodated at one time. Most of the 
machines are individual motor-driven and of high grade. 

Four rooms are equipped with drafting tables and stools with 
storage space for instruments. Most of the equipment is home- 
made, but very satisfactory for the purpose. 

III. Manual Training for White Boys in Grades V, VI and VII 

This work was introduced in the fall of 1914. Two men were 
employed the first year and a total of 1,150 boys received some 
instruction in woodwork. The number of pupils for each teacher 
and the short periods allowed has made it impossible to secure 
good results, the time given to the subject in Evansville being 
barely half the average time given to it in other cities. Each 
teacher is given approximately 500 boys, and the boys are per- 
mitted to work from 30 to 45 minutes per week. This provision 

2G-n5543 



434 Evansville Vocational Survey 

is entirely inadequate in both teaching force and time available. 

The equipment provided has been quite satisfactory. The 
benches and tool cabinets used are the product of the high 
school shops. To equip each grade shop with benches and tools 
costs less than $300, which may be considered a minimum cost 
for each equipment. The city has 12 such shops, all but one being 
in basement rooms. In most cases they are fairly satisfactory, but 
the lighting and ventilation in three shops is insufficient. 

The course of exercises has been carefully outlined and blue- 
printed, but new exercises are constantly being worked out, 
and boys are encouraged to Avork on home problems. The teachers 
find the work difficult, since in only a small percentage of the 
cases does the teacher learn the boy's ability or his inclinations. 
The teaching is too impersonal and the boys are inclined to hurry 
every operation. 

Either the periods should be lengthened or there should be 
more periods each week. Probably three 45-minute periods per 
w r eek w r ould satisfy the demands of most instructors. This would 
require at least seven teachers, but no addition to the equipment 
for boys. 

The aim of the grade work for boys is, mainly, not to train 
them for the industries but, to develop the senses of sight and 
touch, and to give the boys a fund of industrial knowledge that 
will be generally useful to them. 

IV. Manual Training for Colored Boys in the Grades and 
High School 

Instruction in manual training is given to all the boys from 
Grade 5B to Grade 10A. Classes in Grades 5B to 7A have one 
period of 5 minutes each week. The eighth grade classes have 
one period of 80 minutes each week, while Grades 9B and 10B 
have one period of 80 minutes each day. The high school boys 
receive instruction during the morning periods and the grade 
boys are taught in the afternoon periods. The Governor School 
grade classes are taught in a shop at the Governor School. The 
Third Avenue grade boys come to the Clark High School shop for 
instruction. 

All the work in manual training for the colored boys is done 
by one instructor. In the course of one week this instructor 
teaches four high school classes having ten periods, and fourteen 
grade classes having eight periods. This is rather heavy work for 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 435 

one teacher, and the best results cannot be obtained by doubling 
up the classes as this schedule requires. 

In the grades, elementary manual training, knife work and 
drawing are given. In the high school the instruction covers the 
following topics : Joinery, cabinet work, carpentry, wood finish- 
ing, brick-laying and mechanical drawing. 

It is found to be increasingly difficult to hold the interest 
of the boys by offering woodwork alone, and it is felt that a course 
in metal work should be added. 

The equipment of the shop is very limited. A variety wood- 
worker and some wood lathes would greatly increase the efficiency 
of the course as outlined for the colored boys. 

V. Household Arts Courses for White Girls in the High 

School 

General findings. Household arts in the high school includes 
courses in sewing, dressmaking, textile study, design, millinery, 
cookery, dietetics, dining-room service, laundering, house-planning, 
decoration and furnishing. These subjects are required for a four- 
year course in household arts. 

Courses in household arts in the eighth and ninth grades 
are required, while those in the higher grades are elective. In 
the eighth grade the subject is sewing. In the ninth and tenth 
grades the arts and science classes alternate by semesters. During 
the first half, the course includes elementary clothing, textile 
study and design, during the latter half, cookery, study of foods 
and serving. 

In the eleventh grade the art side — including dressmaking, 
design and millinery — is emphasized, and in the twelfth grade the 
science side — including cookery, dietetics, house-planning, deco- 
ration, furnishing and management. During the last school year 
781 girls were registered in the sewing courses from the eighth, 
ninth, tenth and eleventh grades, and 288 girls in the cookery 
classes from the ninth, tenth and twelfth grades. These numbers 
do not represent the number of individual pupils taking the 
courses, but the total enrollment in the department for the year. 
At the end of the ninth grade each high school pupil selects a 
constant which constitutes a major in the high school course. 
Of the girls, 111 have selected household arts as their constant. 

In the eighth grade the periods are forty minutes a day, and 
classes meet five times a week, three lessons being devoted to 



436 Evansville Vocational Survey 

sewing and two to design. In grades 9 to 12, inclusive, the classes 
meet for a double period, 80 minutes, five times a week. 

Those majoring in household arts are required to take three 
years' work, which is equivalent to six credits. 

Including the director, who teaches four or six periods each 
day, the number of instructors is nine, one of whom teaches only 
half time in high school. 

Supplies for cookery and sewing are furnished by the school, 
with the exception of materials for garments for the personal use 
of students. It is impossible to purchase even staple food sup- 
plies in quantity on account of lack of room for storage. This, 
of course, increases the cost of supplies for these classes. Sup- 
plies, such as thread, needle, scissors and materials for some of 
the articles made are furnished; other materials for garments to 
be used by the pupils are bought by them. They are required to 
do their own shopping as a part of the work of the course. All 
cooking supplies are purchased by the teachers, except for special 
meals, when the pupils do the marketing. 

Courses are planned by the head of the department, but the 
teachers are given considerable freedom in deciding what subject- 
matter may be used for each lesson. 

The aim of the sewing or art courses is the planning, cutting 
and making of garments for personal and home use, and the 
encouragement of the girls to apply their knowledge in the home. 
An attempt has been made to correlate design with all of the 
sewing courses, but thus far little has been accomplished. It is 
a necessary basis, however, and the courses will not accomplish 
their highest purpose until a more complete course in applied art 
underlies the work in sewing. The teacher of applied art should 
have thorough training in household arts to enable her to appre- 
ciate and meet the needs of the practical application of art to 
sewing. In the eighth grade two 40-minute periods a week are 
given to design, and it has been possible to do some constructive 
work. In the other grades but one period a week has been given, 
which is hardly enough to make it worth the while. Emphasis is 
placed on the construction of the garments, with some attention 
to textile study, shopping, economy and taste in dress. 

Two semesters are devoted to hand work, applied art and arti- 
cles principally for home use, two semesters to elementary cloth- 
ing and two to dressmaking and millinery. 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 437 

Girls are encouraged to make garments at home and this 
gives them an opportunity to apply the methods for garment- 
making learned in school. Credit for work done at home would 
undoubtedly stimulate the interest. 

The time allotment to an article or garment in both grade 
and high school is too high for the best use of the pupil's time. 
In planning sewing courses so as to enable all pupils to complete 
the work in a given time, with due allowance for instruction in 
theory and other pertinent related matter, the number of articles 
to be made has been set at the lowest possible minimum. Sewing 
courses to be effective should set standards of speed as well as 
workmanship, and to acquire these standards they should be 
arranged so as to give the slower pupils full opportunity to com- 
plete the work, and at the same time not restrict those who have 
the ability to do more work than is scheduled. This can be accom- 
plished by requiring a minimum amount of work for credit, and 
a maximum with extra credit for each garment made. 

The plan in use for the correlation of art and sewing courses 
by applying designs with proper stitches and colors in the class 
is especially good. The application of the design to the article 
for which it is intended is essentially art, the actual making of 
the stitches, which frequently are extremely simple and few, being 
a smaller part of the problem than the colors, the design and its 
suitability for the purpose. Dressmaking, involving, as it does, 
line, proportion and adaptation of the garment to the figure, is 
also very largely a matter of art and close co-operation between 
the departments should result in more artistic garments and more 
practical work for design classes. 

Instruction in household arts is good from the technical stand- 
point. Greater emphasis on the commercial side of sewing would 
be welcomed by some teachers, who feel that better and more 
effective results may be obtained if the personal element can be 
made to give place to real interest in the subjects and methods 
of work. The first attempt in community work was made three 
years ago. Material was obtained from the Charitable Association 
and Baby's Milk Fund Association, which was made into children's 
dresses, bloomers and garments suited to the needs of babes. 
Towels for the lunch room and household arts kitchen, also con- 
stitute good material for lessons. 

The aim of the cooking or science courses is general knowledge 
of cookery and good principles, appreciation of food values and 



438 Evansville Vocational Sukvey 

comparative costs. These courses also include the principles of 
laundering, practice in meal-planning, household decoration and 
management. They seek to increase the girl's appreciation of, 
and responsibilitjr in, her own home, and give her the foundation 
for intelligent usefulness as a homemaker immediately, or when 
she shall have a home of her own. 

Two semesters are devoted to food study, principles of cook- 
ery and household science; two to advanced cookery, dietetics, 
house-planning, decoration and management. These courses are 
planned for use in the home. Cooking or other housework done at 
home is reported and discussed in class, but school credit is not 
given for such work. 

Cooking is done in small quantities, Avhieh does not meet the 
requirements of the home, except to teach the principles of the 
cooking process, and give a knowledge of food materials, prod- 
ucts, values and costs. Foods cooked are eaten by the pupils in 
the class. It has not seemed feasible, thus far, to co-operate with 
the lunch room, though there does not seem to be any good reason 
why it should not be done. It would greatly enhance the benefits 
of the work, as the cooking could be done on the family quantity 
basis, and it would give a definite object in planning and pre- 
paring food. Orders for cooked food might be taken to cater 
to the delicatessen trade. 

The combination of the class room and the lunch room for in- 
struction purposes promises to solve a very serious problem in 
the teaching of cookery. Standards of work to be attained only 
through repetition and experience may be gained in the school 
lunch room, kitchen and dining room. This may be realized if the 
pupils are assigned to w r ork in squads with work scheduled in 
advance, and sequence and alternation of work arranged so as 
to give the necessary variety as well as repetition. The combin- 
ation would also reduce the cost of cooking classes. 

This work would also serve as a basis for tea room or lunch 
room management or catering, which is an open field in this local- 
ity. Science and cookery teachers should co-operate in keeping 
the practical and theoretical work parallel, thus making both 
immediately useful. This is more easily done if laboratories and 
kitchens are in close proximity, and teachers of science have 
thorough training in household seienee. 

Instruction in household science is good technically, but a 
more immediate practical application would greatly enhance the 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 439 

value of the work. Teachers in this department are all technic- 
ally trained women. 

Experience in the sewing trades is not required of household 
arts teachers nor is practical experience in housekeeping. There 
is no doubt, however, that such training and experience would 
enable them to meet practical needs more effectively. 

Equipment. There are six rooms used for sewing, with table 
space for from 18 to 22 girls with drawers and lockers for storing 
unfinished work and supplies, sewing machines, cutting tables, 
dress forms, pressing-boards and fitting-rooms. The rooms are 
located in the first floor of the Manual Training building. The 
light and ventilation are good, but two of the rooms are usually 
overcrowded. 

There are two rooms used as a kitchen for cooking classes. These 
are located on the second floor of the Manual Training building. 
One has individual equipment for 17 pupils, the other for 20. 
Each is equipped with table, gas burner, portable oven, individ- 
ual utensils, knives, forks, spoons and other small utensils. Each 
kitchen is equipped also with a large gas range, refrigerator, 
supply cupboards, lockers and four stationary sinks. Dishes and 
silver also are provided. 

The dining room, also located on the second floor, connects 
with one of the kitchens. The furnishings consist of rug, table, 
buffet, serving-table, dishes, silver and table linen. The table, 
buffet and serving-table have been furnished by the department. 
with funds secured through food and candy sales at different 
times. 

One set of silver was furnished by Major Resencranz, who 
has been an enthusiastic and liberal supporter of all the manual 
training and household arts work. 

The laundry adjoins and connects with the other kitchen. It 
is equipped with six stationary porcelain-lined tubs, wringers, 
washboards, three stationary ironing-boards, stove, tables and 
hand-basins. 

Light and ventilation in all these rooms are excellent. 

VI. Household Arts for White Girls in Grades V, VI and VII 

To meet the requirement of the vocational law, sewing was 
introduced into the Fifth, Sixth and Seventh Grades two years ago. 



440 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The work has not been fully organized or systematized, as no 
one person lias been given authority to plan a course characterized 
by logical sequence from the fifth grade through the high school. 

The classes have met once a week, for periods of from thirty 
minutes to one hour, the time of meeting being determined largely 
by the principals. In some cases girls from different grades have 
met together, which has made it difficult to follow a uniform 
course in the several schools. In the past year 1,000 pupils were 
enrolled in the sewing classes, of whom 334 were in the fifth 
grade, 332 in the sixth grade and 334 in the seventh grade. 

The aim of the sewing courses in these grades is to teach the 
fundamental processes of sewing, such as stitches, seams, hems 
and simple garment construction. These processes have all been 
applied to articles for personal or household use. 

In some of the grade buildings rooms have been provided with 
tables and chairs, in others the regular schoolroom is used. 

Three teachers have been employed, two of whom have given 
their entire time, while the other has taught eighth-grade work 
in the Junior High School in the morning and gone out to the grade 
schools in the afternoon. The course has been given in eleven 
buildings. The work has been very enthusiastically received by 
the girls, and the results of the small beginning which has been 
made furnish evidence that further development is desirable. 
Many of these pupils leave school when they are 14 years of age, 
and, therefore, do not enter the more advanced courses. 

The following recommendations with reference to this work seem 
obvious : 

1. That the length of time available for the sewing courses 
be not less than one hour a week. 

2. That the courses be systematically planned with reference 
to the needs and interests of the pupils, taking the girl of normal 
age for the grade as a type. 

3. That the grades be separated in all classes. 

4. That rooms well lighted, and equipped with tables and 
chairs of the right height, be provided for sewing classes, the 
equipment to include ironing-board, irons, lockers and teacher's 
desk or place for supplies. 

5. That the course include machine sewing in the sixth and 
seventh grades, to provide a vocational basis for those who wish 
to enter any of the needle-work trades. 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 441 

6. That cooking, and subjects pertaining to household man- 
agement and the care of children, be added in the seventh and 
eighth grades, and in the sixth grade in schools where there is 
no seventh grade. 

7. That phases of sewing, cooking, laundry work, sanitation, 
hygiene and care of children be taught, which shall serve as a 
basis for junior nursing. 

8. That rooms in the school buildings, or in houses in the 
vicinity of the school buildings, be properly equipped for cooking 
classes, or, if a room for these classes is not available in connection 
with each school, that centers which shall accommodate two or 
three schools be established. 

9. That in schools where two separate rooms cannot be pro- 
vided, one for sewing and one for cooking, equipment be planned 
for both purposes in one room, provided that classes are not too 
large to be accommodated in one room. 

VII. Household Arts Courses for Colored Girls in the High 

School 

For colored girls in the high school a two-year course in 
household arts is given, embracing one year of sewing and one 
year of cooking. The classes meet each day for two periods of 
80 minutes. 

In the sewing course, instruction is given in plain sewing and 
dressmaking; in the cooking course the subjects taught include 
practical cooking, food study, dietetics, sanitation, meal-planning 
and serving. These are both required courses. An elective course 
in home economics has been offered this year to the eleventh and 
twelfth grade girls, and eleven of these girls have enrolled in 
the course. This course covers the following subjects : Evolution 
of the house, sanitation, home-furnishing, care of house, labor- 
saving devices, laundering, management of the house, income, 
service, care of children, care of sick, foods, cooking, nutrition, 
food supplies and marketing, preservation, adulteration and care of 
food. 

The annual number of individual students enrolled in the 
department is 58. During the last year 40 have been enrolled 
in sewing classes and 70 in cooking classes. Two forty-minute 
periods for five days a week are devoted to this work. 

An annex to the high school building is occupied by the house- 
hold arts department. This annex contains two well-lighted and 



442 Evansville Vocational Survey 

ventilated rooms. One of these, a large room used for sewing 
classes, is furnished with table space for twenty-two girls, lockers, 
sewing machines, cutting and sewing tables and other sewing 
room accessories. 

The kitchen has individual equipment for sixteen pupils. Each 
pupil is provided with table space, gas plate, oven, individual uten- 
sils and larger utensils. Dishes and silver for serving also are 
furnished. 

The value of equipment is about $200. Supplies for both sew- 
ing and cooking are furnished by the school, except those for the 
personal use of the pupils. 

An effort is made to place the girls of this department in homes 
as helpers, while pursuing their high school studies, thus aiding 
the pupils to remain through the four years and at the same time 
put into practice what is taught. These girls often gain useful 
ideas of home life that can be acquired in no other way by them. 

The aim of these courses is to teach the girls habits of neat- 
ness, order and cleanliness of person and home; and to awaken 
their capabilities of usefulness in their own homes. While the 
results of the work are not all that could be desired, it is exerting 
an influence in the lives and homes of the pupils. 

VIII. Household Arts Courses for Colored Girls in 
Grades V, VI and VII 

For the past two years sewing has been taught in Grades V, 
VI and VII at the Third Avenue and the Governor Schools by the 
teachers of the household arts departments at the Clark Street 
Colored High School. Tuesday and Wednesday afternoons are 
given to the Governor School and Thursday afternoon to the Third 
Avenue. The periods are 45 minutes each for each grade once 
a week. 

The course in sewing is the same as that in the other grade 
buildings, except in the Vll-A. A large white apron to be used in 
the eighth year cooking class has been attempted. The girls meas- 
ure, cut. and baste under supervision at school. The machine 
work lias been done at home. In the first year the work was 
very creditable, but this year's work has been unsatisfactory, 
and will continue so unless machines are provided for class work. 

The material for sewing is furnished free from grade V-B. It 
cosls the other grades from 10 to 25 cents per semester. The col- 
lection of these pennies is a tedious task for the teacher, although 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 443 

the majority pay fairly well. An appeal is made at the beginning 
of each semester for the sacrifice of pickle, chewing gum, and 
candy money, and payments are asked for to be made in weekly 
installments of from a penny up. It works well with some pupils, 
but there are many reasons why it does not work well with all. 

This grade sewing at Governor is taught in the regular grade 
class rooms. In some cases two successive classes are taught in 
the same room. This is a hardship for the sewing teacher, the 
grade teacher, and for the pupils. Forty-five minutes are a long 
time to expect persons of that age to remain interested and quiet 
in any study or seat work. 

IX. Commercial Training 

It is believed that the commercial training in the Evansville 
High School will compare favorably with that in similar courses 
in other cities. Since the establishment of these courses in 1894 
there has been steady development. 

Prior to the year of 1912 a general course of study was in use 
in the general high school that made its credit requirements so 
high for college entrance that the commercial work suffered. It 
could not be had since it was all elective, but since 1912, a more 
liberal course has been adopted making it possible for the 
majority of students who wished to elect commercial to do so. 
The enrollment in the commercial course for each year is as fol- 
lows : 1912-13, 228; 1913-14, 343; 1914-15, 464; 1915-16, 589. In 
the spring term of 1916 (the present term) 569 pupils were en- 
rolled in the commercial course. Out of the 154 graduating in 
June, 1916, 84 took commercial work, 54 per cent of the class. 

The senior teacher is known as the head of the commercial de- 
partment. There are only five teachers, so it is necessary for the 
head of the department to devote his time to teaching instead of 
supervision and investigation for the improvement and promotion 
of the department. With an enrollment of 569 pupils this leaves 
but little time for them to do work outside the class room. 

The pupils of the commercial course recite as a separate group 
to a special teacher in each subject in the commercial work. All 
the other subjects of the curriculum which they take are pursued 
in the regular classes of the school, under regular teachers, where 
commercial pupils take the same subjects and recite in the same 
classes with the other pupils of the school, who are taking college 
preparatory work. 



444 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The commercial course as outlined below is believed to be ade- 
quate for the class of students who are able to stay the four years 
in high school, but many are by necessity forced to leave high 
school either at the end of the first or second year. To accommo- 
date this large number, who drop out to take commercial work in 
private schools, a short course should be installed to meet this 
demand, either in a night course or a continuation day course to 
be run at the close of the regular school day from 3 to 5 p. m. 
There is a demand for a course of this kind from clerks, book- 
keepers and stenographers. Many bookkeepers want stenography, 
and many stenographers want a course in bookkeeping, who have 
not had the opportunity of taking all the commercial work. 

The four-year course of study for the commercial students of 
the high school as given in the regular course of study is as fol- 
lows. The subjects underscored are purely commercial subjects: 

Commercial Course Outlined 
FIRST YEAR 

Periods. Cr. Periods. Cr. 
9B Grade— 9A Grade- 
Commercial Arith. ... 5 1 Penmanship & Spelling 5 1 

English 5 1 English 5 1 

Algebra 5 1 Algebra : 5 1 

Latin or German 5 1 Latin or German 5 1 

SECOND YEAR 

10B Grade— 10A Grade— 

Beginning Bkkpg. ...10 1 Advanced Bkkpg. 10 1 

English 5 1 English 5 1 

Latin or German .... 5 1 Latin or German .... 5 1 

Manual Tr., Household Manual Tr., Household 

Arts or Science 10 1 Arts or Science 10 1 

THIRD YEAR 

11B Grade— 11A Grade— 

Com. Geography 5 1 Stenography 5 1 

English 5 1 English 5 1 

Business Corres 5 1 Typewriting 10 1 

Science, Manual Tr., or Science, Manual Tr., or 

Household Arts .... 10 1 Household Arts .... 10 1 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 445 

FOURTH YEAR 

12B Grade— 12A Grade- 
Stenography 5 1 Stenography 5 1 

Typewriting 10 1 Typewriting 10 1 

Civics 5 1 Commercial Law .... 5 1 

American History 5 .1 American History .... 5 1 

To make the course such as to give the class of students elect- 
ing it a full rounded course in commercial subjects, it is neces- 
sary that economics, banking, and office practice be added to 
the course. These subjects have been much in demand the past 
three years, but were not introduced because it would require a 
larger teaching force for the commercial department. If these 
subjects were placed in the commercial course it would enable 
the student to choose a line of commercial work that would give 
him a more complete equipment for a business career. To do 
this, however, he would be compelled to look to his chosen busi- 
ness pursuit instead of preparing for college. 

The commercial course as outlined serves a two-fold purpose. 
The idea primarily is to prepare the student for active business 
life. But a student is able to take practically the entire com- 
mercial course and enter Indiana University with full entrance 
credit. On entering the Universities of Illinois and Wisconsin 
a student will receive credit for only four of the thirteen credits 
offered in the commercial course. It is true, however, that many 
commercial graduates do enter the university, but the course is 
not looked upon by the students as preparatory to college. 

Shorthand and typewriting suffer not because they are not 
valued throughout the course as other subjects are, but because of 
the fact that they receive too little time in the course. A credit is a 
semester's work of five periods of forty minutes, or ten periods 
of forty minutes laboratory work and practice. Shorthand re- 
ceives a credit for a semester's work of five periods of forty 
minutes per week of recitation. Typewriting receives a credit 
for ten periods of forty minutes work on the typewriter per 
week. Shorthand and typewriting are considered as two subjects 
as far as credits and recitations are concerned, but when the 
student takes one he is required to take the other. Since equal 
credit is given for these subjects, the student who takes short- 
hand and typewriting is required to take only two other subjects 
to make up the four subjects required. This work is given for 



446 Evansville Vocational Survey 

three semesters. Every commercial teacher agrees that too little 
time is given. . They are in favor of requiring two periods a day 
for four semesters in typewriting and recitation work five days 
per week for four semesters in shorthand, giving full credit as is 
now done. 

Certain important subjects are omitted from the course which 
the modern business world believes should be included. In order 
to succeed in modern business life, there is need of some elemen- 
tary training in such important things as economics, advertising, 
banking, office appliances and a knowledge of local business condi- 
tions and problems. Since the days when the stenographer's 
notebook, the typewriter, and the ledger were the only para- 
pharnalia with which the commercial worker must be acquainted, 
a great many devices and machines have found their way into 
the modern office which, in the opinion of business men, he should 
know how to handle in an elementary way before going to work. 
Among these office appliances whose use is rapidly extending are 
the comptometer, multigraph, addressing machine, billing machine, 
the telephone, the telephone switchboard, and filing systems. 

The equipment of the school includes twenty-five Underwood 
typewriters and one adding machine. The efficiency of the equip- 
ment depends on two things, the amount of use it receives, and 
the amount of practice each student is able to have. Since the 
school does not have more typewriters than it needs, the efficiency 
of each machine is very high. Practically all of them are used 
every period of the day, and they are also in use before and 
after school. The adding machine is used in practically the same 
way. 

If an inventory were taken of the fixtures of the commercial 
department, including in it typewriters, adding machine, desks, 
chairs, etc., the value would not exceed $1,500. The increase of 
equipment which may be necessary to make a sufficiently practical 
course in new, modern office devices would amount to $1,200. 

Tin arrangement of class rooms is not what it might be. The 
rooms occupied by the teachers of commercial subjects are not 
located in the same part of the building. Most of them are 
basement rooms, where electric lights have to be used all day 
throughout the greater part of the school year. The furnishing 
of some of the rooms is good, having suitable desks or tables, 
lockers, etc. But in others much improvement could be made. 
Appliances such as are used in every business office need to be 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 447 

installed so that the classes may be taught the proper use of 
same. 

The training of all the teachers in the commercial courses ox- 
tends beyond the high school. All have had some university, 
college or normal school work; two arc business college gradu- 
ates, and all have had some business training. All have had ex- 
perience in regular office work. Four of the five employed had 
considerable teaching experience before entering the high school 
department. 

Practice work. The amount of time given to practice work in 
the commercial course is small. At present the high school opens 
at 8:50 a. m. and closes at 2:40 p. m. The school day is divided 
into eight periods, of forty minutes each, one of which is given 
to lunch. 

The regular classes, then, are in session 4 hours and 40 minutes. 
Each student devotes four periods to recitation and three to 
preparation of lessons or in practice work. 

The commercial students have exactly the same hours and 
time allotments as the pupils of other courses. 

In the first year of the course, commercial arithmetic is offered 
for five periods of forty minutes each per week for five months. 
This subject presents practical problems of different occupations, 
drills in accuracy of fundamentals, writing of notes and checks 
and other business papers. 

The second semester of the first year is devoted to advanced 
penmanship and business spelling, the aim of the instruction 
in penmanship being to produce rapid, legible and neat writing. 
The spelling consists not only of business terms, but specific vocabu- 
laries of definite trades and occupations. 

In the second year the student spends two periods per day 
(80 minutes) in bookkeeping for ten months, completing both 
elementary and advanced courses. 

The third year pupils pursue the subjects of commercial 
geography and business correspondence for the first semester, five 
periods (40 minutes each) per week for each subject. 

The last semester of the third year is the beginning of stenog- 
raphy and typewriting; the subject, stenography, is continued 
till the end of the fourth year in one daily period (40 minutes) 
and typewriting (also finished at the end of the fourth year) by 
consuming two periods (80 minutes) daily for the three semesters. 



448 Evansville Vocational Survey 

X. Teachers' Training School 

The Teachers' Training School in its present form was organ- 
ized in the years 1911-12 and 1912-13. It provides a two-year 
course and gives credit for classes A and B. The school was 
established as a part of the public school system of Evansville 
and is supported out of the public school revenue. 

The school is intended to supply teachers for the Evansville 
schools, but a large number of students take advantage of the 
training in a year's or twelve weeks' course, to fit themselves 
to teach in country schools and in the schools of small neighbor- 
ing towns. 

All of the graduates who have sought employment in the 
Evansville schools have been employed. Whether the school sup- 
plies the demand or not is difficult to determine, since it was 
not intended that all city vacancies should be filled by students 
from this school. The Evansville policy has always been, on 
the contrary, to bring in some teachers from the outside, but 
graduates of the Evansville Training School have always been 
given preference. 

Besides the Evansville students there are in attendance a 
number of students who have come in from the country districts 
of Indiana and Kentucky, and from the small towns nearby, 
including Newburg and Huntingburg. Letters have been received 
from Rome City, Rockport, and Grandview, asking for informa- 
tion preparatory to coming here. The tuition for out-of-town 
students is $50.00 per year. 

Three classes have been graduated. This year's class will be 
the fourth and numbers twelve. That will make the total number 
of graduates thirty-nine. The annual number of students is 
about fifty. The first two years of the school there were about 
twenty-five. About 15 per cent of the number enrolled graduated. 

The equipment is that of the high school building. At present 
the quarters are very much crowded. There are eleven instructors 
in all, including two who devote themselves to academic work, 
five critic teachers, and four supervisors in the public schools. 
The time spent in school consists of four periods of forty minutes 
each a day; and in addition to that, time is spent in observation 
and practice, music, drawing, penmanship, and physical training. 
Courses are required in psychology, history of education, general 
and special method, science of education, school management, 
observation and practice, hygiene, nature study, geography, arith- 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 449 

metic, English, United States history, music, drawing, penmanship 
and physical training. 

XI. Public School Evening Vocational Classes for White Men 

and Women 

For two years public evening vocational classes have been 
conducted in the Manual Training building. They have been in 
charge of two directors, one for men and one for women, who 
were employed during the day in directing departments and 
teaching, so that they were able to give only a small portion of 
their time to the evening work. 

It has been found that because of the greater complexity of 
evening school work, it requires a different type of organization 
and supervision, and fully as much time and attention as are 
given to the day school work. 

Instruction has been given in industrial and household arts 
courses. During the year 1915-16, 270 men were enrolled in the 
industrial and 480 women in the household arts courses, making 
a total of 750. In many cases the women were enrolled in more 
than one class, where it was possible to take more than one course 
a week. A woman might, for example, attend an art needlework 
class one night a week, and a cooking class on the remaining two 
nights ; or she might belong to the 5 :30 cooking class, and attend 
the meal planning, or the household management class at 7 :30. 
The total enrollment in classes for women, including double 
enrollments, was 719. 

The industrial classes offered training in mathematics, draw- 
ing, cabinet making, sheet metal work, machine shop practice, 
automobile practice, and electrical work. The household arts 
classes offered elementary sewing, plain and advanced dressmak- 
ing, art needlework, millinery, cooking, meal planning, and house- 
hold management. 

Practically no additional equipment over that of the day 
school, was provided for the evening classes. The work was 
greatly hampered by lack of locker room accomodations for keep- 
ing the students' materials. No shop work could be given in 
lines other than those of the day school. Evening classes for 
tradesmen require modern shop equipment for practice and 
devices for demonstration and explanation, such as are found 
in the commercial shop or factory. The equipment for domestic 
science was inadequate because of the necessity of cooking small 

29-5543 



450 Evansville Vocational Survey 

portions. Effective group instruction for adults is impossible in 
this line without larger utensils. . 

No definite standard of qualifications for teachers of evening 
school classes has been set. In general, the teachers of trade 
subjects were selected who had had experience in that trade. All 
instructors were either trade people or household arts and manual 
training teachers from the day schools. A wage of $2.00 per 
night for the first year of teaching and of $2.25 for the second 
year is insufficient, and the work was handicapped because many 
competent instructors would not serve for that pay. 

The school was in session 21 weeks for three nights a week, 
making a total of sixty-three sessions. The classes were adver- 
tised in advance in the newspapers, and by means of posters in 
the factories, and advance registration was made by those wish- 
ing to enter classes. It was hoped that this would obviate irregu- 
larity in beginning the work ; however, many new students came 
in each evening during the first two weeks who were placed in 
classes whenever possible. The remainder were placed on a wait- 
ing list and notified whenever there was a vacancy in the class. 

The first evening was given over entirely to enrollment, and 
explanation of the courses, and two evenings during the year were 
devoted to social entertainments, which were found to increase 
the social spirit of the school, and strengthen the friendly feeling 
between students and teachers. This left sixty sessions for class 
work, each session lasting two hours. The courses given varied 
somewhat as to the length of the term. Some of the sewing classes 
were arranged in two terms, of twenty-seven and thirty-three 
sessions, respectively, one before and one after Christinas. The 
cooking classes had fewer sessions for each term, as the classes 
met only twice a week instead of three times. This made it 
possible to accommodate a larger number of classes. Two classes 
in cooking met on Tuesdays from 5 :30 to 7 :30. The demand for 
cooking classes could not be met because of lack of kitchens and 
equipment. There were four terms in millinery, which varied in 
length, according to season. The art needlework classes met 
only one night a week. The industrial classes for men were not 
arranged in definite unit courses. No fee of any kind was re- 
quired, but pupils furnished their own materials. 

The only entrance requirements were that the students should 
be at least 17 years of age, and thai the men desiring to enter a 
class must be at work in the trade represented by that class. This 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 451 

made it possible to meet the needs for specific and advanced train- 
ing. The household arts courses were not offered and planned 
as training for trades, but rather to increase the efficiency of home 
makers. The methods of instruction were such as are usually 
employed in general evening courses — including lecture, demon- 
stration, class room, and individual work. 

The analysis of the public evening classes has been based upon 
the returns from these classes during 1915-16. The figures given 
represent the most careful interpretation of the evening school 
records that could be made. 

The customary poor attendance in evening classes of the same 
general character is shown by the statistical charts and tables 
(See Part III, Charts III and Tables VI and VII). The average 
attendance for men was 72 out of a total of 270, or less than one 
out of every four. For women the average was 137 out of 719 
enrollments, or less than one out of every five. A great many 
students left within the first week of enrollment. Seventy-seven 
men, or more than one-fourth of £he number enrolled, attended 
not more than five nights. Nearly one-half of the men enrolled 
attended not more than ten nights, and on an average, only about 
one out of every eleven men attended forty nights or more. In 
the women's classes, 189 enrollments or approximately one-fourth, 
represented attendance of not more than 5 nights, and a total of 
441, represented attendance of not more than 10 nights; about 
one out of every 24 attended more than 25 nights. 

No trade extension classes for women were conducted, al- 
though many trade workers attended the women's classes. None 
of the courses were arranged for single groups of workers, va- 
rious occupations being represented in the enrollment of each 
class. Out of 229 enrollments of housekeepers, 72 were in milli- 
nery, 95 in dressmaking, 34 in cooking, 14 in household manage- 
ment, 9 in elementary sewing, and 5 in art needlework. Out of 
41 enrollments of housemaids, 13 were in cooking, 11 in millinery, 
and the others in sewing of some kind, none being enrolled in 
meal planning and household management. Out of 23 enrollments 
of dressmakers, only three were in dressmaking classes, and two 
in elementary sewing. Of the 5 enrollments of milliners, 2 were 
in dressmaking and three in cooking. 

Twenty-six occupations were represented in the women's 
classes, of which all but housekeeping were wage-earning occupa- 
tions. Many women took these courses as recreation, or in order 



452 Evansville Vocational Survey 

to acquire some new housekeeping accomplishment, or some facil- 
ity which would help them to supplement their daily wage by 
making some of their own clothes and hats. 

In many instances the attendance of women in the evening 
schools is for the purpose of getting assistance in making one new 
garment or hat, and after completing this work they drop out 
of this course. This accounts very largely for the poor attendance 
records. At the same time a great many women attend evening 
classes after long hours of work to add to their knowledge and 
skill along practical lines. It is admittedly difficult to separate 
these two types absolutely, so as to retain the second and discour- 
age the first when they do not come with educational motives. 
This end will be accomplished in a large degree, however, in pro- 
portion as the work of trade extension classes is planned to meet 
the needs of the trade. Many of the girls expressed a desire for 
commercial work as a means of changing or improving the work 
in which they are now engaged. 

Three distinct types of evening school students attend the 
classes. There is, first, the trade worker seeking advancement or 
promotion in his trade by adding to his present equipment of 
productive skill and technical knowledge. Only trade extension 
courses giving advanced instruction in the technique of the trade 
can hold and benefit him. Such courses are beyond the grasp 
of the novice in the trade, the second type, who, if he is to be 
reached at all, must be dealt with in trade preparatory classes, 
separate and distinct from trade extension classes, and giving 
only elementary instruction for beginners. The third type of 
student, which represents a considerable portion of the enroll- 
ment, is the student seeking knowledge of some subject other than 
the occupation in which he is engaged, and not for the purpose of 
becoming a beginner, or a productive worker in a new line. 

XII. Public School Evening Vocational Classes for Colored Men 

and Women 

The evening vocational classes for colored men and women 
were in charge of the directors of the Manual Training and House- 
hold Arts departments in the colored day schools. 

Instruction was given to women in plain sewing, dressmaking, 
fancy work, cooking, and sewing; and to men, in carpentry. 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 453 

The total number of women enrolled was 80, of whom 56 took 
courses in cooking, and 69, courses in sewing, many enrolling 
in both sewing and cookery courses. 

The classes were arranged so that women could take one lesson 
of two hours in cookery, or three lessons of two hours in sewing, 
or two lessons in sewing and one in cookery. This arrangement 
made provision for a large number of people in cookery. Neither 
sewing nor cookery were divided into short-unit courses, but were 
continuous throughout the year. This was due to the fact that 
the attendance was irregular, and to lack of promptness in bring- 
ing sewing materials ; also to the variety of demands on the part 
of those enrolled, and the fact that all sewing was taught by one 
instructor in one room. 

The average attendance for the year in cookery was 6 ; in sew- 
ing, 11. Of the enrollments of women, 58 represented attendance of 
less than 5 nights, 30 attendance of 6 to 10 nights, and 5 of more 
than 35 nights. 

The classification of those enrolled by occupation was as 
follows : 33 housekeepers, 13 domestics, 3 cooks, 9 teachers, 4 
cigar makers, 4 dressmakers, 1 office girl, 1 hair dresser, 1 stock 
keeper, 1 milliner, 10 no occupation given. The ages of the women 
ranged from 17 to 55 years. 

The equipment of the high school was used and proved ade- 
quate, except that utensils for family sized recipes were not avail- 
able, and in consequence the practical value of the work was 
less than it should have been. Processes of cookery, study of 
food materials and combinations are valuable subjects, but the 
courses would be much more useful if home conditions could be 
reproduced to a greater extent. 

There is a demand for courses in laundering, hair or scalp 
treatments, catering, and household management. 

The total number of men enrolled was 36, all of whom took 
carpentry. The lessons were continuous throughout two terms. 
The men were engaged in individual work. 

The average attendance for the year was 6. Of the men 
enrolled 16 attended less than 5 nights, 9, from 6 to 10 nights, and 
2 attended 33 nights. 

The occupations represented were : Contractors, 3 ; carpenters, 
5 ; helpers, 15 ; cement workers, 5 ; house men, 3 ; not specified, 5. 



454 Evansville Vocational Survey 

The shop room is so small, and the equipment so limited that 
it is impossible to offer any new courses without enlarged 
facilities. 

The closing evening of the year was devoted to a social gath- 
ering. 

If this vocational work could be taught at Governor School 
building the attendance would be better, and the enrollment larger. 
Of course, this means new equipment, and more room at that 
building. 

XIII. Prevocational Work 

A scheme for the initiation of prevocational work in the 
Evansville public schools has not been worked out in full detail, 
except in so far as the detail has developed out of the Survey, this 
detail representing courses which have been more or less definitely 
formulated by instructors in Evansville either during the prog- 
ress of the Survey or prior to the Survey. 

Practically no distinctly prevocational work has been given 
in the Evansville day schools, and in general it would seem that 
the character of the prevocational work to be undertaken in the 
future, should be determined without special reference to the 
industrial findings of the Survey, although some regard might 
properly be given in organizing this work to the character of the 
principal industries. 

The evidence obtained from the school records, showing the 
percentage of retardation, and the number of pupils who have 
left school to go into the industry before entering the sixth grades, 
make it clear that it is necessary to begin definite prevocational 
training in this grade. 

A solution which has been tried out in several of the leading 
cities has been the organization of special industrial or prevoca- 
tional centers in which boys and girls were given special oppor- 
tunities when they desired them. It is believed that the situation 
in Evansville is unfavorable for the organization of special cen- 
ters, and that the needs of modern life demand such training for 
each boy and girl in school. To provide this training in two or 
three centers is to give special advantages to some and withhold 
them from others. 

Prevocational work is a natural introduction to specifically 
vocational courses and may be utilized as a means of selection 
and rejection of children, and even, within wide limits, as a 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 455 

means of determining occupational choices by and for the chil- 
dren who graduate into the regular vocational courses. 

Regarded as a selective process, the prevocational work should 
be adapted to develop the individual qualifications of the child, 
and to determine his or her deficiencies and capacities, with refer- 
ence to the vocational and other courses provided in the upper 
grades. This is perhaps the only respect in which the character 
of the prevocational work is affected by the character of the 
vocational courses. 

With the establishment of a Junior High School it will become 
possible to introduce a more intensive course of prevoca- 
tional work in the seventh and eighth grades. With such a modi- 
fication of the school system it may fairly be hoped that a large 
proportion of the boys in the lower grades can be induced to 
remain in school at least through the seventh grade. Probably 
one-fifth of the boys will be interested in a general industrial 
course. While there would not be any opportunity in this course 
for specialized trade training, it would be possible for these boys 
to devote some time to subjects which would prove of practical 
value in industrial work. Admission to this course should be 
open to those who show an aptitude for the work, and who are 
likely to enter some industrial occupation. 

Boys who go directly from the junior industrial course into 
industry will have had some training which will help them to hold 
a position, but many boys will undoubtedly continue on in school, 
electing some one of the day vocational courses. The junior 
industrial, as well as the vocational courses, will prepare for 
apprenticeship, although the preparation will, of course, be less 
adequate for those who go directly into industry from the junior 
industrial course. 

If the compulsory education law of the state is so amended as 
to require school attendance until the age of sixteen, a natural 
election for pupils will be the junior industrial course in combi- 
nation with a da}^ vocational course. Such a combination will fit 
the terms of the law, and keep the boys in school until their 
apprenticeship may begin. 

It is believed arrangements should be made to give boys who 
complete the industrial course some kind of a certificate upon 
graduation. 



456 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



XIV. The Y. M. C. A. Evening Classes 

For eighteen months the Y. M. C. A. has conducted an educa- 
tional department. This department works in co-operation with 
the Educational Department of the National Y. M. C. A., and uses 
the courses of study, textbooks, examinations, and materials 
adopted by them. 

The steady demand for courses offered, increase in class en- 
rollment, and earnestness of the pupils have proved the worth of 
the endeavor, and established the department as a permanent 
part of the work of the association. 

The school scheduled about thirty courses, and offered the 
ones for which there was the greatest demand, 13 for men and 3 
for boys. These courses were all given in the evening and were 
supported by men and boys representing a large number of busi- 
ness activities. The enrollment, attendance, and number of les- 
sons is given in Table XX by classes. 



Table XX 



Y. M. C. A. Evening Classes — Enrollment, Attendance 
and Number of Lessons 



Course 



Penmanship 

Employed boys 

Salesmanship 

Efficiency or choosing an occupation. . 

Architectural drawing 

Boys manual training 

Automobile engineering and chauffeur- 

ing 

Spanish 

English for coming Americans 

Music orchestra practice 

First aid, personal hygiene, public 

health 

Telegraphy 

Wireless telegraphy cjub 



Enrollment 



Total Men 



35 



44 

30 

6 

34 

160 
11 
14 



85 
4 



Boys 



5 


5 




5 


8 






35 


3 


2 




17 


44 




30 




\ 4 


2 


34 





75 

7 



Number 

of 
Lessons 



10 
48 
20 
5 
46 
10 

20 
48 
36 
32 

10 
72 



Total 
Attend- 
ance 



70 
220 
120 
145 
184 
170 

800 
,440 
144 
640 

950 

504 



As it was felt that the commercial branches were pretty well 
covered by the business colleges and the high school, that work 
was not offered. The automobile course was organized to meet 
the need of trained men. The course was divided into three parts : 
(1) Lecture work, (2) shop practice, and (3) road work. A Cadil- 
lac car in the building furnished opportunity to study mechanism, 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 457 

operation and repairing of car. The men studied also in different 
garages, and were given driving lessons on the road two hours 
each lesson night for two weeks. 

It is felt that there is a big field of opportunity among the 
employed boys who leave school at an early age and need the 
education offered by a completion of the grades, at least. They 
are given the essential studies from the sixth to the eighth grades 
inclusive. Because of the need and importance of this work, 
greater stress will be laid upon it next year. A course will be 
worked out to develop all sides of the boy, and will be called the 
boy's group or club. Special inducements in the way of member- 
ship fee will be offered to include everything. 

Tests are given three times a year in December, April, and 
June ; these are prepared by a committee in New York, composed 
of college and university men. Credits are given for this work. 
The courses of study are planned by this committee also. 

The local department is under the supervision of an educa- 
tional secretary and educational committee composed of 
representative professional and business men. Next year each 
member of the committee will have charge of one department as its 
dean. 

Most of the classes are organized into regular courses which 
require from twenty lessons to three years to complete. 

The length of the lessons is two hours. Classes meet from 
one to three evenings a week. 

The ages of the men taking these courses range from 15 to 45 
years, no entrance requirements are made except the experience 
and ability necessary to take the courses. 

The number enrolled in classes in the first year was 240, in 
the second year 365 ; a gain of 125. Of the number enrolled this 
year 217 are men and 148 are boys. About 95 per cent of those 
who enrolled completed their courses. A number of employed 
teachers for men is 8 and for boys 2 ; the number of unpaid teach- 
ers is 2 for the men and 5 for boys. 

The tuition includes membership in the association. The 
amount varies with the different courses and ranges from $6 for 
boys to $20 for men. The tuition may be paid in installments, 
one-half down, balance weekly; boys are allowed to pay at the 
rate of $1.00 a month. 

There is an employment department in connection with the 
educational department and positions are found for students, 



458 Evansville Vocational Survey 

whenever desirable and possible. Fifteen vocational interviews 
have been given during the year. It has been demonstrated that 
these courses increase the efficiency of the men taking them, and 
make their services more valuable. 

In addition to the regular class instruction, the work of this 
department includes talks on practical and scientific subjects 
given by men who are authorities. Eighteen of these talks have 
been given this year, 9 for men and 7 for boys, with a total attend- 
ance of 485 men and 408 boys. The reading rooms, also, are under 
direction of the educational department. These furnish 72 maga- 
zines and periodicals for the men, and 17 for the boys. From the 
libraries 4,712 books were drawn, furnished by the Y. M. C. A. 
and the Public Library department, the boys leading in the num- 
ber of books drawn by 1,432. 

The second floor of the Y. M. C. A. building, which was com- 
pleted about three years ago, is used by the educational depart- 
ment. There is a very good auditorium for lectures and music, 
class rooms for smaller groups, libraries and director's office. 
All are well furnished and have adequate facilities for up-to-date 
work. 

The total expense of all the educational work for the year was 
$2,693.95. This includes the salary of the Educational Secretary ; 
salaries of teachers amounting to $646; cost of supplies for the 
reading room, which was $164.00; and student supplies. Class 
fees amounted to $897.42. The total receipts for the year from 
lectures, tuition, and student supplies was $1,219.96. This does 
not include the $4.00 and $2.00 membership fee charges for mem- 
bership in the association. It will be clear from these figures 
that the educational work is not self-supporting. 

As has been previously stated, no one is admitted to class who 
is not a member of the Y. M. C. A. Many of those who join classes 
do not use any other membership privileges. From such members, 
fees amounting to $93.25 for membership were received. 

The Y. M. C. A. schools occupy a somewhat distinctive place 
trying as they do to adapt their courses to the needs and desires 
of those enrolled in a way that in many classes approaches indi- 
vidual tutoring. They do considerable pioneering in discovery 
and opening of new courses. With a freer hand in the promotion 
of their work than the public institutions have had, they have 
rendered much service in stimulating the ambition of young men. 
The Y. M. C. A. program of symmetrical development for young 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 459 

men through correlated physical, educational, social, and religious 
activities gives an even more distinctive stamp to its night school 
work. 

XV. The Y. W. C. A. Evening Classes 

Courses offered. The Y. W. C. A. offers courses in Bible study, 
sewing and millinery, gymnastics, practical nursing, and first aid 
to beauty. These are intended to promote physical development, 
and to give recreation, as well as instruction while seeking to 
develop the religious, physical, mental, and social sides of the 
girl. The only prerequisite to entrance is Y. W. C. A. membership. 

The pupils who attend these classes come from the laundries, 
factories, stores, telephone and other offices. The ages range from 
16 to 40 years. The courses cannot be said to have content which 
would give them vocational value, but they serve an important 
purpose in furnishing recreation of mind and body to girls who 
are engaged in the hard grind of industry all day. 

Practical nursing. This course is given by one of Evansville's 
prominent physicians. The class meets for one and one-half hours 
one night each week for twelve or fifteen weeks. About 25 girls 
are enrolled. For this class a textbook is used which covers 
physiology, personal and household hygiene, and the care of the 
sick in the home. This is not given with the idea that these girls 
will become nurses, but merely for personal and home improve- 
ment. 

Bible study. A clergyman of the city has charge of the Bible 
study class in which about 25 girls are enrolled. This class is in 
session one and one-fourth hours one evening each week, and by 
following an outlined course the girls complete the study of the 
Life of Christ in about 20 lessons. 

Sewing and millinery. The instruction in sewing and millinery 
is given to meet the demand of a few girls rather than to attract 
many. The public evening vocational school provides a much 
more complete course than the Y. W. C. A. can conveniently give. 
This class meets two hours one evening each week, from October 
through May, and millinery is given for only a short time in the 
early fall and in the spring. The girls are taught the renovation 
and utilization of old material, rather than the complete making 
of a hat. 

Plain sewing only is taught and commercial patterns are used 
exclusively. This is not a set course wherein each girl makes a 



460 Evansville Vocational Survey 

certain number and kind of garments, the plan being rather to 
let each girl choose her own garment, with the advice of the 
instructor, and work on it until it is completed. The cost of ma- 
terials used is the only expense to the girls. Individual instruc- 
tion is largely used, owing to the different abilities of the pupils. 
The average attendance is about five. This course does not 
attempt to teach a trade, but rather to guide the girls to be more 
economical in the expenditure of money in the home. 

First aid to beauty. This class, conducted by a competent 
manicurist and masseur, meets one and one-half hours one evening 
each week for ten weeks. The subjects covered include : Care 
of the skin, together with the use and disuse of some advertised 
cosmetics ; care, proper shampooing, and becoming and suitable 
dressing of the hair; and care and manicuring of the nails. The 
motive of the course is to give the girls a knowledge of how to 
improve their personal appearance, but not to teach them this 
occupation as a vocation. 

Gymnasium. The gymnasium has the largest attendance of any 
of the classes, having a total enrollment of about 200. Three 
classes are planned for young women, and one for children. The 
beginners' class for women meets for two hours each Monday 
and Thursday evening, while the advanced class meets for the 
same period of time on Tuesday and Friday. The tuition for the 
fall and spring term is $3.00 and $2.00, respectively. There are 
about 100 girls enrolled in these two classes. 

The industrial girls' class meets on Wednesday and Friday 
evenings and is well and regularly attended, there being about 
100 enrolled in this section. The fee is $1.00, or 10 cents for one 
lesson. 

A class for children is held from four to five each Monday 
and Thursday. Most of the instruction has been given by the 
Swedish method, very little music being used. Handicraft, nature 
study, and Bible study have been introduced to a small degree 
in correlation with the gymnastic work. There is no age require- 
ment, but the ages range from 8 to 11 years. The average attend- 
ance is only about fifteen. All gymnasium classes begin in October 
and close in May. 

The swimming pool is free, from June through September, to 
all persons who have attended gymnasium all year. Others pay 
$1.00 a season of four months, or 10 cents an entry. The pool is 
open six days a week, both afternoon and evening. The condition 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 461 

of the pool, which is out-of-doors, is absolutely sanitary, for it is 
emptied and thoroughly cleaned every other day. 

XVI. The Draughon-Porter Business College 

The history of business colleges in Evansville dates back to 
1850 when the Evansville Commercial School was opened by 
Jeremiah Behme. This school was later operated under the names 
of The Curnick Business College and The Curnick and Wilson 
Commercial School, until 1905, when Mr. Draughon bought out 
the school. Since 1909 the school has been operated by Mr. J. Lee 
Porter. For five years thereafter it was known as Draughon 's 
Practical Business College, and in 1913 the name was changed 
to Draughon-Porter Business College. 

A reorganization took place in April, 1916, incorporating the 
school under the name of The Porter School. There is an advisory 
board of fifteen members, composed of stockholders, five of whom 
are Evansville men and two out-of-town men. The list of stock- 
holders includes the names of school men of surrounding towns. 
The capital stock has recently been increased from $50,000 to 
$100,000. They have purchased the building formerly owned by 
the Y. M. C. A., which contains adequate class rooms, office, audi- 
torium, and gymnasium. Extensive improvements involving a 
cost of $55,000 are to be made this summer. 

On account of some financial difficulties the enrollment of 
pupils has decreased from 200 in 1914 to 120 in the present year. 
The school will become a state accredited school in the fall. It 
will emphasize business economics in the future, and will seek 
to give students who anticipate going to college some acquaintance 
with conditions in the commercial world. Pupils are required 
to be 14 years of age, and to have finished the eighth grade, but 
graduates of high school are preferred. 

Nine years ago there was not a student who had attended high 
school, but the results, due to the inexperience of the pupils who 
entered business, indicated that it was necessary to raise the 
standard. For two years those who have not finished high school 
have been advised not to take the commercial course. Of the 
out-of-town pupils 68 per cent are graduates of high schools, and 
practically all are over 18 years of age. 

Nine years ago wages paid to young men and women were $2 
and $3 per week. At present average workers receive $7 to $10 ; 



462 Evansville Vocational Survey 

this fact seems to substantiate the claim that higher education 
is desirable and effective in increasing wage-earning power. 

A few of the students are residents of Evansville, but the ma- 
jority are from surrounding territory, within a radius of fifty 
miles. In 1912, 56 per cent were from the city; in 1914, 41 per 
cent, and in 1915, 36 per cent. 

The school sessions are held from 8 .-30 to 11 :45 a. m., and 
from 1 :00 to 3 :45 p. m. five days a week, and from 7 :30 to 9 :30 
three evenings a week. The school is open eleven months in the 
year for day classes, and ten months for evening classes. The 
largest enrollment is in September, October, February and March. 

The school offers the following courses of study: (1) Book- 
keeping course, including double entry bookkeeping, accounting, 
business practice with commercial papers, spelling, arithmetic, 
commercial law, penmanship, letter writing, filing, and efficiency ; 
(2) shorthand course, including Gregg Shorthand, typewriting, let- 
ter writing, business English, spelling, rapid calculation, filing, 
use of duplicating machines, and office work; (3) typewriting 
course, including a complete course in Rational Typewriting ; (4) 
combined course, combining bookkeeping, shorthand, and type- 
writing courses covering the work as outlined above. 

The school provides the use of 2 multigraphs, 1 adding ma- 
chine, 27 typewriters, 1 protectograph, and a bank. 

The "life scholarship" or "unlimited time" certificate entitles 
the holder to remain in school without extra charge for tuition 
until the course has been completed, a diploma granted, and a 
position secured. 

The life scholarship for the bookkeeping or shorthand courses 
costs $65.00 in cash or $75.00 if paid by installments ; for the com- 
bined courses $110.00 cash, or $125.00 by installments. Textbooks 
for each course are extra, amounting to $9.25 for the bookkeeping- 
course, and to $6.65 for the shorthand course. A short typewrit- 
ing course is given for $15.00. A refund is made in case of sick- 
ness, death or unavoidable withdrawal. T\\e total income this 
year was $9,000. 

The average amount of time required to complete the book- 
keeping or shorthand courses is from six to eight months ; for the 
combined course from twelve to sixteen months. About 75 per 
cent of the students take the combined course. 

The courses given in the evening are the same as day courses, 
except that a longer time is required to finish them. Of the total 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 463 

number enrolled 46 per cent are in evening classes. Of these 40 
per cent entered the day school within 4 months, and 20 per cent 
additional joined the day classes before the end of the year. The 
majority of the evening school pupils are young men whose par- 
ents encourage them to earn money while getting their education, 
but they are the ones who finish in the day classes. 

Of those who complete the evening work 75 per cent are 
women. The greatest problem presented by this class is that of 
arousing the activities of the mind in spite of physical fatigue. 
Unless this can be done so that the work becomes pleasureable, 
discouragement results and the student is likely to give up in 
despair. 

The usual methods of instruction are employed, individual 
attention being given to those who need it. The teachers are four 
in number, and are graduates of commercial schools. A test is 
given weekly in ail supplementary courses in which a grade of 
95 per cent is required. If the student falls below this mark in 
any subject, he is required to drop his shorthand or bookkeeping 
until this standard is reached. Since the commercial work has 
been introduced in the town high schools, the demand for more 
efficient work has increased. The test of efficiency in typewriting 
is 40 words, in shorthand 100 words per minute. 

There were 62 graduates in 1915. Thirty will be graduated 
this year. The majority of the graduates are from 17 to 21 years 
of age. They are placed in positions through personal recom- 
mendations, but are not followed up, except as they return to the 
school for assistance in changing position. 

The director reported that positions in Evansville available 
for inexperienced women pay $6 to $8 per week. Those filled by 
men pay $6 to $10. The graduates who are willing to go out of 
town receive from $10 to $16 a week. 

Solicitation by stockholders and friends is carried on in the 
smaller towns and the school depends upon this source largely 
for its patronage. Names of high school pupils who have dropped 
out or who arc in the graduating class are also used for circu- 
larizing. 

XVII. Lockyear's Business College 

The first business college in Evansville, as has been noted, 
was organized in 1850. About twenty-two years ago one of the 
graduates of this school started the Lockyear's Commercial Col- 
lege. 



464 Evansville Vocational Sukvey 

The enrollment the first year was 60, the following year the 
number was doubled, and there was a slight increase each year 
until four or five years ago when the high schools of the surround- 
ing towns introduced commercial courses. This has caused a 
decrease in the attendance. The present yearly enrollment is 
about 500, 400 of whom are day pupils and 100 evening pupils. 

The aim of the institution, as stated by its president, is to take 
boys and girls and make something worth while out of them. The 
pupil's aim is to get something practical, which will enable him 
in a short time to become a wage-earner. 

The administration of the school is under the direction of the 
officers and directors, who compose the advisory board. 

The number of pupils in attendance varies with the season, 
the largest number being in attendance from September to Janu- 
ary. The lowest age at which students are admitted is 14, and 
completion of the eighth grade is required for admission. An 
effort is being made to raise the standard of entrance and require 
a high school diploma, as a basis for commercial training. 

The age at which pupils graduate from the school ranges 
from 15 to 45, being dependent upon previous training and ex- 
perience. 

Of the pupils enrolled in the shorthand department, about 75 
per cent are girls and 25 per cent are boys. In the bookkeeping 
department about 80 per cent of those enrolled are boys and 20 
per cent are girls. In the evening school, enrollment is about 
equally divided between girls and boys. The bookkeeping course 
has about 5 girls to 45 boys, and the shorthand course 5 boys to 
45 girls. 

The business course embraces the following subjects: Book- 
keeping, double and single entry, actual business practice, bank- 
ing, commercial law, rapid calculations, accounting, voucher 
accounting, wholesaling, penmanship, spelling, adding machine 
practice. 

The shorthand course embraces the following subjects : Gregg 
Shorthand, English, spelling, touch typewriting, billing, manifold- 
ing, and letter writing. Stenotype may be substituted for short- 
hand if desired. 

A combined business and shorthand course is given. 

A great many changes in bookkeeping have been brought about 
during the past ten years on account of the introduction of the 
adding machine. A shorter system in bookkeeping is taught in 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 465 

the evening classes. Not as many branches are included in the 
courses given in the evening. 

The equipment consists of 20 Remington, 20 Monarch, 15 
Underwood, and 15 L. C. Smith typewriters, 1 Burrows and 1 
Wales adding machines, 15 Stenotype machines, 2 Remington 
billing machines, 1 Multigraph with motor drive, and printing 
attachment. The school occupies its own building, which is mod- 
ern, well lighted and ventilated, and provided with cloak and 
toilet rooms. The equipment represents an investment of $35,000. 

The teachers, five in number, are high school graduates, with 
commercial school training. It is preferred that they have prac- 
tical experience, though it is not required. 

The method of instruction consists of class work, with special 
attention to individual students. 

Pupils progress as fast as they are capable of doing so. They 
are classified by tests which are given every two weeks. These 
grades form the basis of decision as regards fitness for graduation. 

About 15 per cent of the pupils graduate. Last year there 
were 70 who completed the courses, out of an enrollment of 500. 

The school is in session twelve months in the year, five hours a 
day, five days a week. The evening sessions are held during nine 
months in the year, for two hours three evenings a week. 

One-half of the time is devoted to the class work, and one- 
half to actual practice. The pupils are given investments which 
they deposit in the banks. This money is used to buy and sell 
various commodities and in that way they gain the knowledge 
pertinent to each phase of the transaction. 

Since each pupil progresses according to ability, and time 
given to the work, no definite period is fixed for the course, the 
period being different for each pupil. Students are allowed to 
practice extra time, out of school hours, and many take the 
advantage of this privilege. Seven months is given as* the time 
required to complete either a shorthand, or bookkeeping course, 
and about twelve months for a combined course, but as has been 
stated this depends upon the ability and application of the pupil. 
The rate of tuition for either the shorthand or the business course 
is $75.00, with textbooks included. The tuition for the com- 
bined courses is $150.00. 

Short courses are given in either case, the tuition being $15.00, 
books extra, for one month's course, and $40.00 for three months. 
A three months' course in evening school costs $12.00, textbooks 

30—5543 



466 Evansville Vocational Survey 

extra. An estimate of the aggregate amount of tuition for last 
year is $20,000. 

If a pupil, who has paid tuition in advance, becomes ill or is 
obliged to leave town, his money is refunded. 

The majority of those attending this school are eager to get 
the worth of their money, and stay until they are ready to take 
positions. Undoubtedly the schools are responsible for sending 
out pupils before efficiency has been attained,, but this is partly 
because certain pupils desire to earn money before completing 
their course; in some cases the pupils do not possess the ability 
or the general education required. The school receives calls from 
employers for its graduates, and places its students wherever 
possible. It is also greatly helped by the typewriter companies 
in finding positions. About 75 per cent of those who attend the 
school secure positions as bookkeepers, stenographers, or clerks. 
The remaining 25 per cent take positions outside of commercial 
lines. About 75 per cent of the positions are secured in Evans- 
ville. The wages assigned at which graduates begin are $6 to $8 
for girls, and $8 to $10 for boys. Some of those who do not 
graduate are placed at $3.50 to $5.00 a week. Wages paid to 
temporary workers vary according to the nature of the business 
and the ability of the worker. 

A record is kept of the success of the students and assistance 
is given, if desired, to better their conditions and promote progress. 

The school depends largely upon its clientele for its reputa- 
tion, and advertises extensively at county fairs. A representative 
is sent to the fair, who writes names upon the blank side of a 
card, containing an advertisement of the school. A record is kept 
of the names, and another representative talks to any who seem 
promising. The names are circularized through a series of adver- 
tisements, issued frequently. Paid solicitors also look up boys 
and girls who have left school, and follow up high school gradu- 
ates. Investigation failed to reveal that solicitation was done 
among Evansville high school students. The field of activity is 
as much in the small towns and country dist rids as it is in Evans- 
ville. 

It is impossible for any of these schools to thrive unless they 
secure a sufficient enrollment to provide a margin of profit. Gen- 
erally the larger the number of pupils the better the school, for 
with increased income it is possible to get better school room, 
more satisfactory equipment, and teachers of a higher grade. 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 467 

However, the inevitable consequence of the necessity of money- 
making laid upon the private business schools is widespread effort 
to induce young people to take up commercial work under their 
instruction. The effect upon society is decidedly not beneficial 
in certain respects, and that fact in a study like this must be 
honestly faced. 

The private schools cannot select with enough care students 
suitable for commercial work. Young people defective in ability, 
personality, or education are not always refused admission. The 
schools cannot afford to reject many who apply to them, since 
their very existence depends upon the enrollment of students from 
month to month. There is, however, a growing sentiment among 
the better schools in favor of discouraging immature applicants, 
and applicants whose schooling is deficient. 

The private commercial school, as an institution, is serving an 
educational need in this city. It will continue to serve a special 
educational need until short intensive courses are offered by the 
public schools. It has been stated repeatedly that these private 
schools have met a very definite vocational need in Evansville 
for thousands of boys and girls who for various reasons were 
unable to take the four-year high school course. They are per- 
forming a service, however, which should be offered these young 
people at public expense. To an increasing degree wider facilities 
for commercial training are being provided in the public schools 
to groups constantly growing in size. When shorter and more 
direct business courses are offered in the public secondary schools 
in the city, most of the private business schools will probably have 
fulfilled their mission, so far as the youth in Evansville are 
concerned. 

XVIII. Private Dressmaking Schools 

There are two of these schools conducted by women who are 
practical dressmakers, who combine school and shop. This type 
of school has been popular locally for the past few years. Girls 
and women who wish to learn how to sew take materials for 
the garments which they need and make them, under direction, 
at the school. As Evansville is the largest city in this section, 
and offers the only opportunity for this kind of work, a large 
number of those who attend are from snudl towns in Indiana, 
Illinois and Kentucky. 

Four types of instruction are given : 



468 Evansville Vocational Survey 

(1) For those who wish simply to learn how to sew. They 
bring material to the school, and are taught to make the garment, 
paying fifty cents a day for the instruction. In some cases they 
pay for having a draft made to their measurement. 

(2) For those who can sew, but wish to learn drafting. In 
one school the Keister System is taught and in the other a system 
which has been evolved from other systems, which were learned 
by the patentee in other schools. Fifteen dollars is charged for 
one of these systems and twenty for the other. Instruction is 
given until the pupil has thoroughly mastered the subject. 

(3) For those who wish to combine drafting and sewing. A 
certain number of days, about forty, are allowed for the sewing 
in addition to the time required to learn the drafting system. In 
one school the tuition is $25.00, in the other $30.00. 

(4) For those who wish advanced work in fancy drafting and 
dressmaking. An additional tuition is charged for this work. 

Tuition is usually paid in advance and as consecutive days of 
attendance are not required, no refund is necessary, except in 
case of prolonged illness or death. 

The daily sessions are about six or seven hours in length, five 
days a week and half day on Saturday in one school. In one 
school evening sessions two hours in length are held three evenings 
a week. A few pupils attend both day and evening classes. The 
pupils are from 13 to 65 years of age, the majority being between 
16 to 35 years old. 

The equipment is the usual one of a sewing room, furnished 
with machines, drafting and cutting tables, chairs and cupboards 
for work. 

The instruction is given by the dressmaker and assistants. 
The teaching is very informal and individual, and the relation 
between teacher and pupils becomes very intimate. 

These schools rely upon the personal recommendation of their 
students almost entirely for advertisement. 

No systematic records have been kept, hence accurate informa- 
tion regarding number of pupils and attendance could not be 
obtained. It was estimated in one school that the annual number 
of students is about 200; from the other no statement could be 
obtained, but it is reported that there are very few patrons of 
the school. 

Those who pursue these courses do so mainly for home use, 
but in some cases dressmakers attend for the purpose of learning 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 469 

drafting systems. It was stated that a few of the pupils start 
dressmaking shops of their own, some are engaged in dressmaking 
establishments, and a few sew by the day. 

Information regarding these points was very meager and 
names of those engaged in such work were not numerous enough 
to warrant the belief that the training given in these schools has 
any special trade significance. 

One of the schools is located in the basement of Lockyear's 
Business College. 

It is operated by a practical dressmaker who has evolved dif- 
ferent systems of drafting, one of which she claims is so extremely 
simple that a child could use it. It is a straight line draft involv- 
ing the use of a simple chart. With its use any garment may be 
made from a picture. 

In this school, as in the other, courses are offered in drafting 
alone, or in combination with dressmaking. The time required 
to complete the courses has been two weeks for drafting, six 
weeks for drafting and dressmaking, or ten weeks for drafting 
and fancy dressmaking. Under a reorganized plan the drafting 
course will be given in twenty-two lessons, covering a period of 
two weeks. 

A course of 72 lessons in drafting and dressmaking will be 
given in 6 weeks, and in drafting with fancy dressmaking in 100 
lessons in ten weeks. Under the old plan, consecutive days of 
attendance were not required, but pupils could come in at any 
time until the number of days allowed were completed. A few 
students attend both day and evening classes. 

The equipment consists of sewing machines, tables, chairs, and 
mirrors. The school is in session six and one-half hours a day, 
five days a week, and one-half day on Saturday. The evening 
sessions are two hours in length, and are held three evenings a 
week. 

The director and an assistant do all the teaching. Nearly all 
of the students enrolled avail themselves of the full amount of 
time to which they are entitled. The amount paid for the drafting 
course is $20, drafting and dressmaking $30 to $50. In case of 
sickness or death intervening, pupils are reimbursed for the 
balance of unused time. Control of the school has recently been 
assumed by a local man who proposes to advertise extensively, 
and if his efforts meet with success, to buy the patent and place 
the school upon a better educational and business basis. He states 



470 Evansville Vocational Survey 

that the income last year was $4,000, and that there is a great 
money-making opportunity, if the draft responds to advertising. 
The number attending the school seems to indicate that women 
are realizing the value of being able to make their own clot lies 
and are willing to pay for it. 

XIX. Training Schools for Nurses 

General findings. There are four private hospitals, three Prot- 
estant and one Catholic, in which the girls receive training as 
nurses. 

The principal subjects included in these courses are anatomy, 
physiology, bacteriology, hygiene, materia medica, dietetics, ob- 
stetrics, surgery, contagious diseases, diseases of children, and 
ethics of nursing. 

The time required to complete the course is three years. It is 
usual to have a probation period of three months, after which, 
if the probationer is accepted, she enters into the full work of 
class and hospital training. The pupils are on duty twelve hours 
a day doing regular hospital work. 

In most cases all of the instruction is given in the evening. 
In a few cases some time is given during the day for recreation 
and study. It is required that applicants shall have completed 
the eighth grade, and one or two years of high school work at 
least is preferred. There is an increased effort being made each 
year to raise the standards for applicants. A systematic attempt 
is being made by the state nurses association to urge pupils who 
are contemplating becoming nurses to finish the high school course 
in order to have a proper foundation for their work. 

Instruction in the various subjects is given by physicians, 
specialists and the hospital superintendent, The practical work 
is done under the direction of the superintendent and her assis- 
tants. In each case it was stated that applicants under IS years 
of age are not accepted, and that those from twenty to twenty- 
five are given preference. 

While accurate figures could not be furnished, it was stated 
thai nearly all who enter complete the course, the per cent who 
do so ranging from 75 to 90. 

The students come from Evansville and the surrounding towns 
in Indiana. Illinois and western Kentucky. It is said that those 
from out of town are more desirable, because they do not have 



Summary of Findings as to Schools 471 

the outside distractions and concentrate more thoroughly on 
their work. 

Seventy-six pupils are enrolled in classes this year. 

After probation the student nurses are paid $8.00 a month in 
two hospitals; in one they are paid $8.00 the first year and $10.00 
during the second and third years ; and in one they are paid $5.00 
a month for the full three years. In all cases board, room, and 
laundry are furnished without charge. 

Tests are given on class work from time to time, and a record 
is kept of the nurse. Final examinations are given by the State 
Board of Examiners for Nurses. When the, grades are satisfac- 
tory, the certificates are recorded at the court house, and diplo- 
mas are issued. Upon graduation the nurses are classed as 
professionals and receive $25.00 a week for regular nursing, and 
$30.00 to $50.00 a week for nursing contagious cases. 

A detailed account of the training and occupation of nurses 
is given in the section on Hospitals and Nurses. Part V, pp. 287 
to 299. 



PART VII 

FINDINGS AS TO LIBRARIES 

Branches. The public libraries of Evansville comprise the fol- 
lowing branches, reading rooms and stations : 

Administration library 1 

Branches 4 

Reading room 1 

School deposit stations 9 

Classroom libraries 2 

Industrial stations 5 

Colored library 1 

Number of volumes. These libraries contained on June 1, 1916, 
28,631 volumes, distributed as follows : 

Total 28,631 

In branches for adults 15,582 

Branch for whites 13,243 

Branches for colored 2,339 

In children's reading rooms, for juveniles. . . .12,336 

Rooms for whites 10,204 

Rooms for colored 2,132 

In silent reading room 713 

Number of borrowers. In the period January 1, 1913, to June 
1, 1916, 15,361 borrowers were registered, who are classified in 
Table I. 

Of the total number of borrowers registered 14,244 Ave re white 
and 1,117 were colored. Nearly two-thirds of these borrowers were 
juveniles, under 16 years of age, the number of juvenile borrowers 
being 9,427. Among adult library borrowers, women at home 
numbered 2,375 and women at work 725 ; children at work 40 ; 
students 483 ; teachers, ministers, and other professional persons 
895 ; business men 400 ; and other borrowers, including not classified, 
1,016. 

Circulation. The aggregate circulation of volumes during the 
period January 1, 1913 to June 1, 1916, by branches and stations 
represented 472,561 issues or borrowings of volumes, of which 

473 



474 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



274,415 were credited to juvenile books, and 198,146 to books for 
adults. In the following statement this circulation is shown by 
branches and stations. 

Total circulation Jan. 1, 1913, to June 1, 1916.472,561 

Of volumes for adults 198,146 

By branches, total 187,159 

Branches for whites 174,977 

Branches for colored 12,182 

Stations and schools 10,987 

Of volumes for juveniles 274,415 

By branches, total 177,693 

Branches for whites 166,122 

Branches for colored 11,571 

By schools 96,722 

Schools for whites 90,067 

Schools for colored 6,655 

Volumes on useful arts. The number of public library volumes 
on useful arts was on June 1, 1916, 1,765, distributed to the four 
branches as shown in Table II. 



Table I — Number of Borrowers from Evansville Public Libraries, 
January 1, 1913, to June 1, 1916 





Number of Borrowers 


Class of Borrower 


Total 


White 


Colored 


Total 

Juvenile * 


15,361 

9,427 

40 

483 

400 

889 

434 

37 

2,375 

725 

02 

362 

127 


14,244 

8,734 

39 

5443 

399 

800 

411 

33 

2,271 

597 

58 

343 

118 


1,117 
693 


Children at work 


1 


Students 2 


40 


Business men 

Trade or factory 

Professional persons 3 


1 
89 
23 


Ministers .... 


4 


Women at home 


104 


Women at work 


L28 


Teachers, men 

Teachers, women 

Unclassified 


6 

19 
9 







-Under 16 years of age. 

Over 1 (> years of age, in public, parochial or business schools. 
-Not otherwise classified. 



Summary of Findings as to Libraries 475 

Table II — Volumes on Useful Arts, June 1, 1916 





Number of 


Volumes on 


Useful Arts 


Branch 


Total 


For Adults 


For Juveniles 


Total 


1,765 

524 
801 
319 
121 


1,329 

379 

643 

220 

67 


436 


East branch 


145 


West branch 


158 


Cherry branch 


99 


Wheeler branch 


34 



The circulation of volumes of this character by the several 
branches in the period from January 1, 1913 to June 1, 1916, rep- 
resented a total of 12,523 issues or borrowings, the circulation of the 
several branches being as shown in the following statement. 

Table III — Circulation of Volumes on Useful Arts, January 1, 1913- 

June 1, 1916 





Circulation of Volumes on 


Useful Arts 


Branch 


Total 


For Juveniles 


For Adults 


Total 


12,523 

5,531 

5,427 

1,231 

334 


8,907 

3,874 

4,041 

830 

162 


3,616 




1,657 


West branch 


1 ,386 


Cherry branch 


401 


Wheeler branch 


172 



With the development of vocational education in the public 
schools the demand upon the public library for works on useful arts 
will undoubtedly increase. 

Library borrowers among persons scheduled by the Survey. 
The Survey inquiry developed the fact that the proportion of bor- 
rowers to non-borrowers among the occupational groups covered 
was in the aggregate nearly 1 to 2. This proportion is sufficiently 
high to indicate that the public library is an important educational 
agency in the community. Table IV, showing the number of regist- 
ered library borrowers among groups of persons scheduled by the 
Survey is not, however, presented as indicating for any given oc- 
cupational group a proportion obtaining in the given occupation 



476 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



as a whole in Evansville, but only as being in connection with the 
data given in preceding sections generally significant of the fact 
that the library facilities have been freely utilized by all classes. 



Table IV — Number of Borrowers Among Persons Scheduled by the 

Survey 





Number Scheduled 


Occupation 


Total 


Registered 
as Borrowers 


Total 


508 

237 

190 

47 

67 

41 

22 

22 

17 

16 

14 

12 

10 

10 

9 

7 

7 

5 

3 

9 


168 


Children who withdrew from school 


102 


Bovs » 


82 


Girls 


18 


Garment workers 


17 


Cigar makers 


14 


Nurses 




Salespersons 


3 


Power machine operators 


1 


Laundry workers 


6 


Broom makers 


3 


Stenographers 


3 


Cotton mill operators 


4 


Pottery workers 




Teachers 


9 


Bookkeepers 


2 


Housekeepers 


2 


Milliners 




Dressmakers 


2 


Miscellaneous 


2 



That 82 of the 190 boys and 18 of the 47 girls who withdrew 
from school during the year 1915-1916 were registered at the pub- 
lic library as borrowers of books, is a fact of considerable interest; 
as is also the fact that 17 of the 67 garment makers scheduled and 
1.4 of the 41 cigar makers were so registered. It would not, of 
course, be safe to generalize from these, or from any other propor- 
tion shown in the table— certainly one would not be justified in con- 
cluding, for example, that no Evansville nurses utilize the public 
library facilities, although there were no registered borrowers among 
the 22 nurses scheduled. The general conclusion does seem war- 
ranted that the public library has been performing a useful function 
in the community, and the use already made of its facilities by all 
classes is a guarantee that its -facilities may be systematically de- 
veloped in the future to reach a larger proportion of Evansville 
workers. 



Summary of Findings as to Libraries 



477 



School deposit stations and class room libraries. Working upon 
the theory that the public library is an integral part of the educa- 
tional agencies of the community, 9 school deposit stations and 2 
class room libraries have been established. The two class room li- 
braries are in charge of teachers, and have a total of 5,461 volumes, 
of which 4,691 were in a white school, and 770 in the colored school. 

These stations are in charge of paid assistants from the public 
library. The distribution of books in the schools listed, by paid 
assistants from the library, has been made a part of the regular 
school program on one day each week during the school year. A 
result of this work according to reports made by teachers has been 
better work on the part of children in school, and an awakened book 
interest on the part of the parents. In recognition of this interest 
on the part of the parents, it was deemed expedient early in the 
last school year to open the library of the Baker school for three 
afternoons and evenings each week, and to initiate the experiment 
of keeping the libraries in the Claremont, Blankenberg and Twelfth 
Avenue schools open one afternoon each week during the summer of 
1916. 

Industrial stations. The following table shows the circulation 
at the several industrial stations and the classification of books. Of 
the 6,542 loans, 5,145 were for books of fiction and 1,397 of non- 
fiction. 



Table V — Circulation at Industrial Stations from Date of Opening 

to June, 1916 





Date of Opening 


Circulation by Industrial Stations 


Industrial Station 


Total 


Fiction 


Non-fiction 


Total 




6,542 

1 ,996 

3,793 

372 

176 

205 


5,145 

1,909 

2,636 

291 

148 

161 


1 ,397 


White Swan 

Y. M. C. A 

Karges 

Y. W. C. A 

Faultless 


Jan. 22, 1914 

July 1, 1914 

Dec. 1, 1915 

Jan. 6, 1916 

Feb. 2, 1916 


87 

1,157 

81 

28 

44 



The further development of this industrial station work is one 
of the problems to be solved in the immediate future. An effort 
will be made to interest factory employees in reading along voca- 



478 Evansville Vocational Survey 

tional lines. More technical books will be purchased and greater 
stress will be placed upon personal appeal. In the fall a working 
boys ' club is to be established at the "West Side Library. 

The Willard Library. This institution has a great influence in 
the city of Evansville. Its purpose is that of a reference library, 
and fiction is, therefore, not a specialty. The library caters to the 
public high schools both white and colored; to 12 literary clubs, 2 
Roman Catholic schools (Sisters selecting the books), Saint Mary's 
Hospital, one Lutheran School, and the Telephone Company. Debat- 
ing is one of the popular high school subjects, and recently volumes 
have been added to this library to meet the need of students pre- 
paring for debates. Following is an enumeration of some vocational 
and industrial subjects upon which reference lists may be found: 
Accounting and Business, Efficiency, Salesmanship, Carpentry, 
Electricity, for boys and men, Civil Engineering, Engineering, 
Architecture, Mechanical Arts, Homemaking, Moving Picture Work, 
Farming and Forestry, the Professions, Public Service, Fine Arts, 
Factories. 

The total number of reference books in the library is approxi- 
mately 46,000, of which about 16,000 are reference books, and 
30,000 are in the circulation division. The circulation amounts to 
83,644, of which 64,424 is for fiction and juvenile books, and 20,539 
for history, travel and science. 



PART VIII 
VOCATIONAL NEEDS OF COLORED PEOPLE 



Colored population. In the ten years from 1900 to 1910, accord- 
ing to the Federal census, the colored population of Evansville 
decreased from 7,518 to 6,266, or from 12.7 per cent of the total pop- 
ulation to 9 per cent. In the seven years, 1909 to 1916 according to 
the school enumerations the colored population 6 to 21 years of age 
increased from 1,606 to 1,721, the increase amounting to 115. The 
annual school enumerations do not, however, show for this latter 
period a continuous or regular increase from year to year, and it 
is not improbable that the annual variations in the colored popula- 
tion 6 to 21 years of age shown by the school enumeration, . are 
largely accounted for by inaccuracies in these enumerations. The 
results of the several school enumerations are given in Table I. It 
will be noted that a series of small increases for the years 1912 to 

1915 is followed by a decrease in 1916 as compared with 1915. In 

1916 the city limits were extended, but the colored population, 6 to 
21 years of age, as returned by the school enumeration, was less 
within the extended area by 268, than the total population of the 
same age in 1915, in the old area. 

From the data available it seems probable that the proportion col- 
ored has not changed materially since 1910, and that rather less 
than one-tenth of the total population of the city was colored at 
the time of the Survey. 

Vocational nerds. No modification of the general principles in 
accordance with which vocational education is to be developed in 
Evansville is required with reference to the colored, as distinct 
from the white population. In a large sense the needs for vocational 
education and training, and the principle underlying its develop- 
ment are the same for both classes. Judged, however, by the actual 
occupations in which considerable numbers of colored persons are 
engaged, in Evansville the present needs for vocational instruction 
are comparatively simple. A development of vocational work in 
the colored schools beyond these actual needs as indicated by pres- 
ent employments, may be regarded as a means of enlarging for 
colored people the range of industrial opportunity. Such an en- 
largement is a matter of public policy. The report of the Survey 

479 



480 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Table I — Colored Population of Evansville, 6-20 Years of Age for 
Each Year — 1910-1916 School Enumerations 









Population 6-20 Years of Age 




1 T E M 


1909- 
1910 


1910- 
1911 


1911- 
1912 


1912- 
1913 


1913- 
1914 


1914- 
1915 


1915- 
1916 




Both Sexes 


Total 

Increase 


1 ,606 


1,820 
214 


1,802 
18 


1,821 
19 


1,872 
51 


1,984 
112 


1,721 


Decrease 




263 






















Male 






Total 

Incease 


837 


897 
60 


872 
25 


882 
10 


889 

7 


889 
99 


850 


Decrease 




138 






















Female 






Total 

Increase 


769 


923 
154 


930 

7 


939 
9 


983 
44 


996 
13 


871 


Decrease 




1 25 



















provides a basis upon which to establish a system of vocational 
education which will in a measure meet the requirements of present 
employments and under which, as is true of the program for 
whites, development in the future to embrace other employments 
will be possible. 

A committee of the Evansville Chamber of Commerce urged 
upon the Director the vocational needs of the negro population in 
the following words : 

"The Baptistown Committee of the Chamber of Commerce 
feels that the vocational survey of Evansville will be incom- 
plete without a survey of the wants, needs and resources of 
an element of the population numerically not unimportant, 
and economically and industrially in just that state of develop- 



Vocational Needs of Colored People 481 

ment most likely to be stimulated for its own good and the 
good of the community, by application to it of the vocational 
ideal. We wish strongly to urge upon your attention the col- 
ored population of Evansville. 

"Our committee in conference with representatives of the 
colored people have been canvassing the local situation. We 
find a decided eagerness on the part of the colored people to 
take advantage of the opportunity that vocational training 
offers for more efficient service in the various crafts and 
trades and walks. 

1 1 The following is but a partial list of the trades and crafts 
about which we were able to gain some information in a brief 
and cursory investigation. We feel that both the numbers 
in the classes and the classes themselves will be largely increased 
by a more thorough inquiry. * * * 

"We urge upon you to extend your Survey to an element of 
the community most in need of its promise for increased ef- 
ficiency and we believe that a neglect of the colored population 
will lame the results of your Survey for the community." 
The Educational Committee of the Chamber of Commerce ap- 
pointed a sub-committee "to determine what industrial education 
would best fit the negro of the city for his place in the industrial 
world. ' ' This committee submitted the following report of its find- 
ings and recommendations. 

1 ' The method pursued by your sub-committee was an adapta- 
tion of the general plan used by the Evansville Industrial 
Survey Committee. 

"The sub-committee called to its assistance those of the 
negro citizens who, in the judgment of the committee, were best 
qualified to comprehend the desires, needs, and industrial out- 
look of the negro race, of Evansville. * * * 

"It is the opinion of this sub-committee that the industrial 
educational work of the negro youth should be given in the 
four following departments. 

"Following the prevocational work in the previous grades. 

"First. A junior industrial course for Grades VII and VIII. 

"For those beginning the industrial work, a rather broad 
treatment should be given. It is recommended that the work 
given in this department should be in lines that lead natur- 

31—5543 



482 Evansville Vocational Survey 

ally into those trades where a negro has a reasonable hope for 
industrial success. The work should embrace a large variety of 
subjects so as to give the pupil the best possible opportunity for 
an intelligent selection of his life work. The following list of 
courses is suggested. 

Boys 

1. Concrete construction and cement finishing. 

2. Bricklaying and plastering. 

3. Carpentry. 

4. Painting. 

5. Tin and sheet metal. 

6. Agriculture. 

Girls 

1. Sewing. 

2. Cooking. 

3. Laundry work. 

4. Care of house. 

"The committee is of the opinion that this course should 
include a system of regular industrial visits as a part of the 
pupil's training. 

"Second. A two year vocational school for Grades IX and 
X: 

"In this department there should be retained as many of 
the subjects of the j:>revions department as would be thought 
wise. There should be given more detail to the work and it 
should be done in a more intensive manner. Upon finishing the 
work in this department the student should be prepared to take 
a place in the trade he has elected to follow as an apprentice. 

"Third. A technical high school course, for Grades X, 
XI and XII. 

"The negro student should here have the privilege of pursu- 
ing the same courses as those provided the white student. 
He should, in this department, be able to fit himself re- 
work in his chosen trade or to prepare himself for entrance to a 
higher technical school. 

"Fourth. Evening and part-time industrial classes. 

"Evening classes in industrial work should be organized 
to meet the needs of those who are in the trades nod wish 
further instruction. Based upon the results of investigations 



Vocational Needs of Colored People 483 

among those who wish instruction, the following lines are 
suggested. 

Men 

Carpentry 

Painting, paperhanging and decorating 

Concrete work 

Bricklaying 

Farming 

Landscape gardening 

Auto-mechanic 

Janitor and caretaking 

Commercial work 

Waiter (table) 

Women 

Home economics and care of children 
Laundry work 
Commercial work 
Millinery 

"The above list is the result of an actual survey and names 
with addresses of those who have asked for such instructions is 
attached as a part of this report. 

"Your sub-committee asks your favorable consideration of 
this report and that you forward the same to the Director of 
the General Survey Committee with your approval. ' ' 
The following statement regarding the schooling, occupations 
and vocational needs of the negro population of Evansville is 
intended to cover only those conditions and needs which are in 
a degree peculiar to the negro population, and with reference 
to which some special statement seems required. It will be under- 
stood that as regards any given occupation or vocational course 
of instruction and training, the findings of the Survey apply 
equally to the white and to the colored population. 

Enrollment in colored schools. The number of colored pupils 
enrolled in the public schools each year from 1909 to 1916 and 
the average daily attendance for these pupils is shown in Table II. 
In the period of seven years from 1909 to 1916 the number 
of colored pupils enrolled in the public schools increased from 
1,036 to 1,201, giving an increase for the period of 165. Average 
daily attendance increased from 712 in 1909 to 886 in 1916, or 
by 174. 



484 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



Table II — Enrollment of Colored Pupils in Evansville Public Schools 

—1909-1910 









Colored Pupils 






Year 


Number Enrolled 


Average Daily Attendance 




Total 


Increase 


Decrease 


Total 


Increase 


Decrease 


1909-1910 


1,036 
1,057 
1,091 
1,075 
1,141 
1,190 
1,201 






712 
722 
739 
712 
806 
865 
886 






1910-1911 


21 
34 




10 
17 




1911-1912 






1912-1913 


16 


27 


1913-1914 


66 

49 

11 

165 


94 

59 

21 

174 




1914—1915 






1915-1916* 






1909-1916. . 







*Enrollment and average daily attendance was increased by an extension of city 
limits, taking in four new schools. Enrollment and average daily attendance for this 
year are based upon data taken off the books April 7, before completion of the school 
term. 

Iii Table III the number of colored pupils enrolled is related 
to the total population 6 to 20 years, as returned by the school 
enumerations each year, 1909 to 1916, and the percentage enrolled 
of the total population 6 to 20 years of age is shown. 



Table III — Number and Percentage Attending School, of the Colored 
Population 6 to 20 Years of Age— 1909-1916 





Colored Population 6-20 Years of Age 


Year 


Total 


Enrolled in School 




Number 


Per Cent 


1909-1910 


1,606 
1,820 
1,802 
1,821 
1,872 
1,984 
1,721 


1,936 
1,057 
1,091 
1,075 
1,141 
1,190 
1,201 


64.5 


1910-1911 


58.1 


1911-1912 


60.5 


1912-1913 


59.0 


1913-1914 


60.9 


1914-1915. 


60.0 


1915-1916 


69.8 



In the seven years the proportion in school of the colored 
population 6 to 20 years of age has varied from 58.1 to 69.8 per 
cent, the highest proportion being that for the year 1915-1916. 



Vocational Needs of Colored People 485 

The high percentage for this last year may, however, 
be due to an undercount of the school-age population for this 
year. It is, at least, improbable that the school age population, 
which has shown small increases for several years, should have 
decreased in this one year by 263, and that the proportion enrolled 
in school which had been approximately 60 per cent in each of 
the five years preceding should have risen in this year to nearly 
70 per cent. According to the Federal Census of 1910 the propor- 
tion attending school in the total populaticn. white and colored, 
6 to 20 years of age, was in Evansville onlj 56 per cent. 

The school enumeration records submitted to the Survey do 
not classify the population by age, and it is, therefore, impossible 
to get accurate figures showing the number in school and not in 
school for such significant groups as the population under 14 
years of age, or 14 to 16 years of age. According to the Federal 
Census of 1910, the number of negro children 6 to 14 years of 
age was 891 in that year, of whom 776, or 87.1 per cent, had 
attended some school at some time during the school year. The 
percentage attending school for children 6 to 14 years of age, it 
may be noted, was almost the same for the negro as for the white 
population, being 87.1 per cent for negroes and 87.7 for whites. 

It is undoubtedly true that the present conditions as regards 
schooling are vastly superior to those which are represented by 
the schooling of the older generations of colored people now living 
in Evansville. Of the colored population 10 years of age and 
over in the city, 18.7 per cent, or nearly one-fifth, were illiterate 
in 1910, the corresponding proportion for the native white pop- 
ulation being 1.4 per cent. Of negro males 21 years of age and 
over, 21.9 per cent, or more than one-fifth, were illiterate. The 
high proportion of illiteracy among adults has undoubtedly been 
a serious handicap for the negro population in the past, but 
under present schooling conditions it may safely be said that 
the whole negro population is rapidly becoming entirely literate, 
and that, in the future, economic improvement of conditions will 
not be handicapped by any general condition of illiteracy in the 
adult population. 

Evidence that the negro population is seeking to improve its 
educational status is given in the statistics relating to Evansville 
libraries, in which it appears that 1,117 negroes registered as 
borrowers of books in the period from Jan. 1, 1913, to June 1, 
1916. These borrowers included juveniles, business men, trade 



486 Evansville Vocational Survey 

or factory men, professional men, ministers, women at home and 
at work, and teachers. The colored libraries contain 2,339 books, 
and the colored children's reading-rooms, 2,132 books. The cir- 
culation of books among the colored people in the period indi- 
cated represented 31,178 issues, or borrowings. One class room 
library and two school-deposit stations have been established in 
the public schools, the number of borrowers registered at the 
school-deposit stations being 162. These statistics relate to the 
Public Library, and do not cover registration at the Willard 
Library, for which data were not available, although it is known 
that a number of colored people are registered at the Willard 
Library. In the section on libraries some further statistics are 
given indicating the utilization of public library facilities by the 
colored people. 

Occupations of colored people. The Educational Committee of 
the Chamber of Commerce as a result of its investigation of the 
employments in which negroes are engaged concluded, as has 
been noted, that the colored people were in precisely that state 
of development in which vocational education would be of great- 
est utility to them and indirectly to the community. The propor- 
tion of negro boys and girls going out from the lower grades 
of the schools directly into some wage-earning employment is 
probably greater than the corresponding proportion for the white 
population ; or, conversely, the proportion remaining in school 
for academic schooling is smaller. For the negro children under 
present conditions, vocational education is of prime importance. 
A sub-committee of the Chamber of Commerce Educational Com- 
mittee in conference with eleven qualified negro citizens of 
Evansville, and following a canvass of the negro population 
through individual conferences, prepared the following list of 
occupations in which colored people were found employed. This 
is not submitted as being in any sense complete, but as indicating 
the principal employments. 

Employment of Negroes in Evansville 
Men 

Chauffeurs Plasterers 

Bricklayers Carpenters 

Ilodcarriers Elevator men 



Vocational Needs of Colored People 



487 



Housemen 

Cooks in restaurants and hotels 

Deliverymen 

Stock keepers in stores 

Grinders in Vulcan Plow Works 

Gardeners 

Caretakers 

Teachers 

Ministers 

Business men, etc. 



Housekeepers 
Laundresses 
Librarians 
Teachers 



Errand boys 
Newsboys 
House boys 
Delivery boys 
Messenger boys 



Doctors 

Barbers 

Junk dealers 

Porters 

Janitors 

Stationary engineers 

Street laborers 

Cement workers 

Teamsters 



Women 

Workers in cigar factories 
Hairdressers 
Dressmakers 

Cooks in homes, restaurants and 
hotels 

Boys 

Office boys 
Porters 
Elevator boys 
Chauffeurs 



Girls 
Nurse girls Servants in homes 

Assistant cooks Laundry girls 

Stock girls in stores Workers in cigar factory 

Suggestions for vocational courses. Analyses of such of these 
occupations as are sufficiently vocational in character to provide 
a basis for vocational instruction and training in the schools are 
given in the appropriate industrial or occupational sections of this 
Report, These analyses are, of course, equally pertinent to voca- 
tional courses for colored and for white classes. As regards the 
initiation of vocational work in the schools for colored people 
the following suggestions were made : 



488 Evansville Vocational Survey 

1. That a junior industrial course for Grades VII and 
VIII be established, embracing the following occupations : 

For Boys 

1. Concrete construction and cement-finishing. 

2. Bricklaying and plastering. 

3. Carpentry. 

4. Painting and decorating. 

5. Tin and sheet metal. 

For Girls 

1. Sewing. 

2. Cooking. 

3. Laundry work. 

4. Care of house. 

2. That a two-year vocational course for Grades IX and 
X be established continuing the work initiated in the 
several lines specified for the junior industrial course, or 
in as many of these lines as may seem expedient. Upon 
finishing the more intensive training provided in this 
course the student should be prepared to take a place 
in the trade he has elected to follow as an apprentice. 

3. That vocational high school courses for Grades X, XI, 
and XII be established similar to those planned for white 
students. 

4. That evening and part-time industrial classes be organized 
for those employed in the trades and wishing further 
instruction in the following lines, in each of which a pro- 
visional enrollment has been secured. 

Number promising 
A. Evening Courses to take course 

Auto mechanics 11 

Bricklaying 6 

Carpentry 15 

Commercial work 10 

Concrete work 24 

Cooking r 5 

Farming 8 

Janitor and care-taking 7 

Laundry 2 

Serving 35 

Waiter (table) 7 



Vocational Nee'ds of Colored People 489 

B. Day Courses 

Landscape gardening 12 

0. Part-time Courses 

"Waiters 9 

5. That girls be taught junior nursing, or the care of younger 
children inasmuch as they do that kind of work until they 
become old enough to take more responsible positions. 

6. That the colored children be encouraged to read indus- 
trial books and magazines and that such books and mag- 
azines be provided for them. 

7. That the number of industrial books in the colored libra- 
ries be increased. 



APPENDIX I 



Courses for Evening" Trade Extension Classes in Evansville 

It has already been pointed out in the foregoing Report (see 
pp. 129 to 130) that detailed suggestions are being offered for 
the vocational work in Evansville only at the very urgent request 
of the Evansville authorities. The courses to be given there or 
in any other city should be worked out as the result of many 
conferences with competent representatives from each trade con- 
cerned. The first and most important step for Evansville, as 
elsewhere, is the recognition of the fact that no one can, from 
the outside, hand any community a complete, ready-made course 
of study as a doctor would give a pill to a patient. A course 
of study to be worth while must be an evolution. In its main 
outlines, at least, it should start with the things of which the 
trade approves and be adapted to many conditions which only 
the experience of the school in teaching the course can give. 
These suggestions which follow are only possible suggestions 
which the director of vocational education, his associates and 
advisory committees from the particular trade might well con- 
sider before agreeing on the course to be used at the start of 
trade-extension evening classes in the city. 

Attention is called here to the discussion concerning the need 
of organizing the instruction for any trade or occupation with 
a series of brief or short unit courses, each dealing with some 
subject or part of a subject which the worker from that trade or 
occupation should know to help him to greater efficiency, better 
wage and promotion (pp. 491 to 497). Equally important as 
the same discussion points out, is the organization of these short 
units into systematic general courses so as to provide for both 
the worker wishing to take a few very definite and specific things 
and the worker desiring a more thorough-going preparation for 
his trade. 

No attempt has been made to state the number of lessons to 
be given to each of the topics suggested. Doubtless this will vary 
according to the nature and conditions of local trades and indus- 
tries. 

Automobile Repair and Construction 
The topics or brief courses on the subject as given in a number 
of places include the following: 

491 



492 Evansville Vocational Survey 

1. Elementary shop work in automobile repair and construc- 

tion. 

2. Advanced shop work in automobile repair and construction. 

3. Lectures on frames and axles. 

4. Lectures on motors and lubricating. 

5. Lectures on carburetors. 

6. Lectures on transmissions, clutches and steering-gears. 

7. Short lecture course on ignition and magnetos. 

8. Short lecture course on starting and lighting. 

9. Advanced course on ignition and magnetos. 

10. Advanced course on starting and lighting. 

11. Sketching, plan-reading and mathematics for the automobile. 

12. Advantages and disadvantages of different types of automo- 

bile devices and construction. 

13. Instruction for garage men in the use of different machines 

used in machine shops and in garage work, such as the 
drill-press ; the lathe ; the planer ; the grinder ; tool-grinding ; 
and the treatment of metals. 

14. Garage organization and management. 

15. Garage records and cost systems. 

16. Salesmanship of automobiles. 

17. Salesroom record and cost systems. 

It would be possible to organize three different general 
courses, each requiring at least 150 lessons, or about three years 
of 50 lessons each (two lessons per week for six months each 
year). These courses could be as follows: 
I. Advanced course for automobile mechanics, open only to me- 
chanics and garage men. 
II. Advanced course for automobile mechanics, open only to those 
completing I above or those who with at least two years' 
successful experience as garage mechanics could demon- 
strate their ability by an actual test to do the elementary 
and advance shop work of the unit courses 1 and 2 above. 
In addition a general course could be offered for garage man- 
agers and auto salesmen (open to garage managers, foremen, sales- 
men and to those completing either general Course I or II above). 

For these persons the following courses could be given : 

1. Garage organization and management. 

2. Garage records and cost systems. 

3. Salesmanship of automobiles. 

4. Salesroom record and cost systems. 



Appendix I 493 

Building Construction 

The unit courses in this subject as given in a number of places 
are as follows: 

1. House framing. 

2. Roof construction. 

3. Stair building. 

4. Outside trimming and interior finishing 

5. Millroom practice. 

6. Builders' hardware. 

7. Practical work in laying bonds for bricklayers. 

8. Practical work in building arches, chimneys, etc. 

9. Mathematics for carpenters and bricklayers. 

10. Elementary sketching, plan-reading, drawing for carpenters 

and bricklayers. 

11. Taking off quantities and study of building materials. 

12. Advanced plan-reading and estimating and study of speci- 

fications. 

13. Timekeeping and cost distribution. 

Out of the above unit courses it has been found possible to 
arrange for capable students the following general courses, each 
requiring at least two years of study : 

I. General course for journeymen carpenters. 
II. General course for journeymen bricklayers. 
III. General course for building foremen. 

Courses should be open to carpenters, bricklayers, draftsmen, 
foremen and cost-estimators. 

Drawing and Design 

The following unit courses, open only to those employed dur- 
ing the day in the occupation on which the drawing bears, have 
been given: 

1. Elementary architectural drafting.. 

2. Advanced architectural drafting. 

3. Elementary sheet metal drafting. 

4. Advanced sheet metal drafting. 

5. Elementary mechanical drafting. 

6. Advanced mechanical drafting and machine design. 

Five general courses, each requiring at least two years to 
complete them, may be offered from the above : 



494 Evansville Vocational Survey 

I. The general course in architectural drafting. 
II. The general course in sheet metal drafting. 
III. The general course in machine drafting design. 

Electrical Work 
Such unit courses as the following are being offered : 

1. Elementary science of electricity. 

2. Application of mechanical and electrical laws. 

3. The theory and use of instruments and batteries. 

4. Elementary mathematics, theory and construction of D. C. 

generators and auxiliary apparatus. 

5. Use and repair of D. C. instruments in testing. 

6. Operation and maintenance of the D. C. switchboard. 

7. Elementary course in alternating current phenomena. 

8. Elementary theory, mathematics and construction of the A. 

C. generator. 

9. Elementary construction, testing and repair of the A. C. 

instruments and motors. 

10. Elementary construction, testing and repair of A. C. trans- 

formers and auxiliary apparatus. 

11. Elementary construction, testing and repair of A. C. convert- 

ing apparatus and switchboards. 

12. Reading of maps, plans and specifications for outside elec- 

trical construction work. 

13. Methods of handling men, materials and tools in outside 

electrical construction work. 

14. Organization and cost-keeping in outside electrical construc- 

tion work. 

15. Treatment, handling and erection of pole-line materials. 

16. Methods of guying wires, poles and wires in outside con- 

struction. 

17. Safety devices and precautions for outside electrical con- 

struction. 

18. Methods of excavating for conduits and manholes in under- 

ground electrical construction work. 

19. Laying and concreting conduits and manholes in under- 

ground electrical construction w T ork. 

20. Methods of back-filling and repairing in underground elec- 

trical construction work. 
From these brief courses these general courses are being 
organized : 



Appendix I 495 

I. General course for journeymen electricians. 

II. General course for shop journeymen in electricity. 

III. General course for motor electricians. 

IV. General course in outside construction. 

Furniture- Working 

The following unit courses are given in a number of places : 

1. Bench work. 

2. Millroom practice. 

3. Inlaying and veneering. 

4. Hardwood finishing. 

5. Tool-grinding (including special tools and cutters). 

6. Saw-filing. 

7. Cabinet makers' hardware. 

8. Mathematics for cabinet makers. 

9. Sketching, plan-reading and taking off quantities for cab- 
inet makers. 

These units are offered in a general course for furniture 
workers open to apprentices, young workers and journeymen 
in the trade and requiring three years for its completion. 

Machine Shop 

These brief or unit courses are given in a number of places : 

1. Shop work on the drill-press. 

2. Shop work on the lathe. 

3. Shop work on the planer. 

4. Shop work on the shaper. 

5. Shop work on the milling-machine. 

6. Shop work with jigs and fixtures. 

7. Shop work on tool grinding. 

8. Shop work on grinder. 

9. Treatment of metals (including the tempering of tools). 

10. Review of arithmetic (including fractions, decimals, percent- 

age ; ratio, square root, w r eights and measures). 

11. Mensuration (including simple formulas and tables, areas 

and surfaces, volumes and weights). 

12. Mathematics and mechanism of lathes. 

13. Sketching and blueprint reading for machinists. 

14. Elementary mechanical drafting. 

15. Transforming formulas and simple algebra. 



496 Evansville Vocational Survey 

16. Mathematics and mechanism of the milling machines. 

17. Modern organization and methods of production. 

18. Machine shop materials. 

19. Mechanics of the machine shop. 

20. Machine types and attachments and special machines. 

21. Mathematics and mechanics for machine draftsmen and de- 

signers (including trigonometry and graphs). 

22. Advanced mechanical drafting and machine design. 

23. Machine design. 

These courses, open only to those employed in machine shops, 
are organized in a number of places with such general courses 
as these: 
I. General course in machine shop practice. 
II. Advance course in mechanics and machine shop foremen. 
III. General course for machine draftsmen and designers. 

Plumbing* 

The following brief courses are given in a number of places: 

1. Roughing in jobs. 

2. Joint-wiping and soldering. 

3. Installing fixtures, including cutting and pipe-filling. 

4. Mathematics for plumbers. 

5. Sketching and layout work. 

* 6. Plan-reading and taking off materials. 

7. Drainage and ventilation. 

8. Plumbers' laws and ordinances. 

9. Hot-water heating. 

10. Steam and hot-water circulation. 

Out of these courses two general courses are made requiring 
three and two years, respectively : 
I. General course for plumbers. 

11. Advanced course for master plumbers. 

Printing 

Such unit courses as the following are being given : 

1. Printers' English. 

2. Job composition. 

3. Imposition. 

4. Lettering for printers. 

5. Free-hand drawing for printers. 



Appendix I 497 

6. Applied design for printers. 

7. Materials used in printing (paper, ink and plates). 

8. Elements of cost in printing. 

9. Bookkeeping and cost accounting. 

10. Estimating for printers. 

11. Advertising and salesmanship for printers. 

12. Feeding the platen press. 

13. Make-ready on the platen press. 

14. Feeding the cylinder press. 

15. Make-ready on cylinder press. 

16. Mixing colors for pressmen. 

17. Color work for pressmen. 

18. Inks and papers. 

19. Stock-cutting and cost estimating. 

Three general courses are organized from these unit courses: 

I. General course for journeymen compositors. 
II. Advanced course for compositors and foremen. 

III. General course for journeymen pressmen. 

Sheet Metal 

The following unit courses might be given: 

1. Shop work in the construction of different joints, seams and 

figures from patterns. 

2. Pattern making. 

3. Elementary sheet metal drafting. 

4. Advanced sheet metal drafting. 

From these a general course in sheet metal, three (3) years in 
length, could be organized. 

Concrete Construction 
The following unit courses could be offered in this subject : 

1. Nature of materials. 

2. Proportioning materials. 

3. Methods of mixing. 

4. Methods of placing. 

5. Placing steel for reinforced concrete. 

6. Construction and care of forms. 

7. Concreting in cold weather. 

8. Strength of concrete as affected by removal of forms. 

9. Surface finishes. 

10. Waterproofing methods. 

II. Manufacture of cement. 

32—6543 



APPENDIX II 



Pupils Record Card in Agriculture 

As illustrative of a kind of record-keeping which is necessary 
to efficient work in all vocational subjects, the committee submits 
the following pupil's record card, which has been approved by 
the State Board of Education for use in Indiana schools. This 
record card had its start in one of the conferences of the State 
Administrators of Vocational Education, held by the National 
Society for the Promotion of Industrial Education at Staten 
Island some time ago. It represents the census of opinion of 
State Directors of Agriculture. The card follows: 



499 



500 



Evansville Vocational Survey 



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APPENDIX III 



JUNIOR H1®M SCHOOL 




AGHICULTUtyL COURSE. 



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ELEMENTARY SCHOOL 



3 



APPENDIX IV 



Selection and Training of Teachers 

The Survey Committee has recognized from the start the very 
great importance of providing the means whereby competent 
teachers properly trained can be secured for the extensive develop- 
ment of training in the practical arts of all kinds, which Indiana 
is undoubtedly facing. In fact the Committee believes that this 
problem is the most important problem of all. No matter what 
may be done through legislation, organization, equipment, courses 
of study and even supervision, the question of the success of the 
work throughout the state depends upon the kind of teachers 
Indiana is able to obtain for the service 

Recognizing this, the Committee has undertaken a special study 
of the whole question in its relation not only to the city of Evans- 
ville, but to the whole state. 

A special committee on the selection and training of teachers 
in practical arts was appointed consisting of the following mem- 
bers: Leonard (Chairman), Laubach, Roberts, Book, Baylor, Smith 
and Stuart. 

The Committee was charged with the duty and responsibility 
of reporting upon such important matters as the following: 

(1) The present status of teachers of Indiana in each of the 
practical arts subjects as to previous practical experience, previous 
teaching experience and special training. 

(2) The present facilities afforded in the state for proper 
training of such teachers. 

(3) The present plans of all the agencies in the state engaged 
in the training of such teachers for the future of their work. 

(4) The present way or ways in which the teachers of these 
practical arts subjects are selected, employed or trained in service. 

(5) What other states are doing in order to secure competent 
teachers for this work. 

(6) What legislation, if any, is needed to further this enter- 
prise in getting well-trained teachers. 

(7) Recommendations as to way in which the training of 
teachers in Indiana should be organized and carried on. 

509 



510 Evansville Vocational Survey 

At the time when the Survey Report on Evansville goes to press 
this sub-committee is engaged in the study. It has been found 
impossible to print in connection with this Report any of its find- 
ings or conclusions. 

Attention, however, is directed to the Report on Indianapolis 
which follows this Report, in which a synopsis of the recommend- 
ations of the sub-committee on Selection and Training of Teachers 
will be found; and to a full and complete report of this special 
committee which will be published about June 1st, 1917. 



•No. 


1. 


•No. 


la. 


•No. 


2. 


No. 


3. 


No. 


4. 


No. 


5. 


No. 


6. 


*No. 


6a. 



BULLETINS OF INDIANA STATE BOARD OF 

EDUCATION. 

Vocational Education Series. 

(The following publications on Vocational Education have been I^ued by the Voca- 
tional Division of the Department of Public Instruction and may be had free of 
charge by addressing the Vocational Division, Department of Public Instruction, or the 
Director, W. F. Book.) Those marked (*) are out of print.) 

Tentative Course of Study in Industrial Subjects for Public 
Schools of Indiana, Parts I, II and III. 203 pp. August, 1913. 
Letter of Information to Superintendents and School Boards, on 
Vocational Education, 6 pp., July, 1913. 

Present Status of Industrial and Vocational Work in Indiana. 
Report to Superintendents and School Boards of State, November 
7th, 1913. 8 pp. 

The Training and Certification of Teachers for Agricultural, 
Industrial and Household Arts Subjects in the Public Schools of 
Indiana. 36 pp. February, 1914. 

Vocational Education in Indiana. Information Relating to the 
Establishment and Administration of State-Aided Vocational 
Schools. 48 pp. March, 1914. 

Regulations Governing Vocational Agricultural Schools and 
Departments in Indiana. 15 pp. April, 1914. 
Pre- Vocational Agricultural Work in the Public Schools of In- 
diana. 31 pp. July, 1914. 

Suggestions for the Study of Vocational Education in Town- 
ship Institutes. 40 pp. Reprinted from Outlines for Township 
Institutes for 1914-15. 
*No. 7. Helps for Teachers in Agriculture : 

Parti. September-October, 1914. 14 pp. 
Part 2. November-December, 1914. 14 pp. 
Part 3. January-April, 1915. 30 pp. 
*No. 8. Helps for Domestic Science Work in Seventh and Eighth Grades : 
Part 1. September-October, 1914. 25 pp. 
Part 2. November-December, 1914. 22 pp. 
Part 3. January-February, 1915. 24 pp. 

No. 9. Letter of Information Regarding the Licensing of Teachers to 
Teach Elementary Agriculture, Elementary Domestic Science and 
Industrial Arts in the Indiana Public Schools. 7 pp. January 
1, 1915. 
*No. 9a. First Annual Report on Vocational Education in Indiana. Re- 
printed from 2?th Biennial Report of Supt. Public Instruction. 
61 pp. December 1, 1914. 

No. 10. Pre- Vocational Agricultural Courses for the Public Schools of 
Indiana. 223 pp. April, 1915. 

No. 11. What the Public Schools of Indiana are Doing In Pre- Vocational 
Agricultural Work. 30 pp. June, 1915. 

No. 12. State Course of Study in Industrial Arts for the Public Sohools 
of Indiana. 43 pp. August, 1915. 

No. 13. State Course of Study in "Domestic Science" for the Public Schools 
of Indiana. 126 pp. August, 1915. 

No. 14. One Phase of Agricultural Education in Indiana. Supervision ef 
Home Project Work. 30 pp. February, 1916. 

No. 14. Supervised Home Projeet Work. 44 pp. January, 1017. 



